The  earliest  age  is  the  most  import- 
ant one  for  education,  because  the  be- 
ginning decides  the  manner  of  progress 
and  the  end. 


PUBLIC  SCHOOL 
—  METHODS 


By  the  Following  Authors,  Editors  and  Reviewers 

Charles  A.  McMurry,  Ph.D. 
Jessie  Elizabeth  Black,  Ph.  B.,  Ed.  B. 
Samuel  Christian  Schmucker,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D. 
Philander  Priestly  Claxton,  M.  A.,  Litt.  D. 


Waite  A.  Shoemaker,  Pd.  B. 
Frederick  E.  Bolton,  Ph.  D. 
Lottie  L.  Deneen 
Emelia  M.  Goldsworthy 
Wm.  F.  Rocheleau 
P.  W.  Horn,  A.M. 
John  H.  Glotfelter,  Pd.  D. 
Alfred  Bayliss,  M.S. 
Grace  Greves  Truax 


Gertrude  Longenecker 
Edward  F.  Worst 
Lucy  Dorrit  Hale 
Sarah  C.  Brooks 
U.  J.  Hoffman 
Mrs.  E.  E.  Olcott,  A.  M. 
Charles  H.  Sylvester 
Anna  E.  McGovern,  B.  S. 
Mary  Reid  Pierce 


VOLUME  ONE 


SCHOOL  METHODS  COMPANY 


CHICAGO 


NEW    YORK 


Copyright,  1912:    Hanson-Bellows  Co. 
All  rights  reserved 


AUTHORS,  EDITORS  AND  REVIEWERS 


CHARLES  A.  McMURRY,  PH.D. 

Director  of  Training  School,  Northern  Illinois  State  Normal 

School;  Superintendent  City  Schools,  De  Kalb,  111. 

Type  Studies 


JESSIE  ELIZABETH  BLACK,  PH.B.,  ED.B. 

Critic  Teacher,  School  of  Education,  University  of  Chicago 
Dramatization,  Games,  Plays 


PHILANDER  PRIESTLY  CLAXTON,  M.A.,  LITT.D. 
United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Geography 


ANNA  E.  McGOVERN,  B.S. 
^     Professor  of  Primary  Methods,  Iowa  State  Teachers'  College, 
ft  Cedar  Falls,  Iowa 

Geography 


FREDERICK  E.  BOLTON,  PH.D. 
]     Professor  of  Education,  State  University  of  Iowa,  Iowa  City 
^  School  Management  and  Discipline 


CHARLES  H.  SYLVESTER 

Formerly  Professor  of  Pedagogy  and  Literature,  State  Normal 

School,  Stevens  Point,  Wis. 

School  Management  and  Discipline 


P.  W.  HORN,  A.M. 

Superintendent  of  Schools,  Houston,  Texas 

Reading 


AUTHORS,  EDITORS  AND  REVIEWERS— continued 

MRS.  E.  E.  OLCOTT,  A.M. 

Head  of  Teachers'  Course,  Central  Normal  College, 

Danville,  Ind. 

Reading  and  Phonics 

SAMUEL  CHRISTIAN  SCHMUCKER,  A.M.,  PH.D. 

Department  of  Biological  Sciences,  West  Chester  State  Normal 

School,  West  Chester,  Pa. 

Elementary  Sciences  and  Agriculture 

WM.  F.  ROCHELEAU 
Former   Director  of  Training   School   in   Southern    Illinois 

State  Normal  University 
Grammar,  Elementary  Science  a)id  Elementary  Agriculture 

WAITE  A.  SHOEMAKER,  PD.B. 

President  State  Normal  School,  St.  Cloud,  Minn. 

Arithmetic 

LOTTIE  L.  DENEEN 

Primary  Critic,  State  Normal  School,  LaCrosse,  Wis. 

Number 

EMELIA  M.  GOLDSWORTHY 
Director  of  Art,  Western  State  Normal  School,  Kalamazoo,  Mich. 

Drawing 

EDWARD  F.  WORST 

Former  Director  of  Graphic  Arts,  Chicago  Normal  School; 

Superintendent  Schools,  Joliet,  111. 

Construction  Work 

LUCY  DORRIT  HALE 

Department  of  Drawing,  State  Normal  School,  Milwaukee,  Wis. 

Construction  Work 


AUTHORS,  EDITORS  AND  REVIEWERS-continued 

JOHN  H.  GLOTFELTER 
Vice-President  and  Director  in  Training,  Kansas  State 
Normal  School,  Emporia,  Kansas 
Language  and  Grammar 


SARAH  C.  BROOKS 
Principal  Baltimore  Teachers'  Training  School,  Baltimore,  Md. 

Language 


GRACE  GREVES  TRUAX 

Formerly  Primary  Critic,  Training  Department,  State  Normal 

School,  Kearney,  Neb. 

Physiology 


MARY  REID  PIERCE 
Department  of  Music,  American  Book  Company 
Music 


U.  J.  HOFFMAN 
Assistant  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction, 
Springfield,  Illinois,  in  charge  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Country  Schools 
General  Review 

GERTRUDE  LONGENECKER 

Supervisor  of  Practice  Work,  State  Normal  School, 

Kirksville,  Mo. 

Use  of  the  Senses 

ALFRED  BAYLISS,  M.S. 

Late  Principal  Western  Illinois  State  Normal  School, 

Macomb,  111. 

History  and  Civil  Government 


TWENTY-FIVE  TYPE  STUDIES 

on  READING,  GEOGRAPHY, 

HISTORY  and  SCIENTIFIC 

AGRICULTURE 


Prepared  By 
CHARLES  A.  McMURRY,  PH.  D. 


In  Volume  III 

Cinderella 

Barefoot  Boy 

In  Volume  IV 

Lake  Michigan 

Panama  Canal 

Yellowstone  Park 

St.  Petersburg 

Erie  Canal 

Steamship     Voyage 

New  Orleans 

from    New  York  to 

Coast  of  Norway 

Hamburg 

Mount  Shasta 

In  Volume  V 

The  Puritans 

Iroquois  Indians 

Burgoyne's   Invasion 

George  Washington 

The  American  Flag 

Andrew  Jackson 

Steamboat  Traffic  on 

Columbus 

the  Mississippi  River 

Louisiana  Purchase 

British  Colonies 

Corn 

Cotton 
Coffee 

Roosevelt  Dam 

IV 


PREFACE 

Volumes  One  and  Two  of  Public  School  Methods  are 
devoted  to  the  work  of  the  first  three  grades  of  school ;  the 
contents  of  volumes  Three,  Four  and  Five  relate  wholly  to 
methods  in  connection  with  branches  taught  in  Intermediate 
and  Grammar  departments,  embracing  grades  four  to  eight 
inclusive. 

In  the  present  edition  the  original  chapters  have  been 
expanded  by  the  addition  of  much  new  and  valuable  matter, 
and  the  work  as  it  relates  to  volumes  One  and  Two  has  been 
done  under  the  direct  supervision  of  Miss  Jessie  Elizabeth 
Black,  Ph.  B.,  Critic  Teacher  in  the  School  of  Education, 
University  of  Chicago. 

The  subjects  of  Dramatization,  Story  Telling,  Games  and 
Songs,  Construction  Work,  Moral  Training,  and  The  Use  of 
the  Senses  will  be  found  most  helpful.  These  were  especially 
prepared  for  this  edition. 

In  this  new  edition  the  publishers  believe  they  have  pro- 
duced a  work  which  will  meet  the  urgent  needs  of  all  teachers. 
Before  publication  of  these  volumes  relating  to  the  work  of 
the  primary  grades,  the  chapters  were  sent  in  sections,  for 
revision,  criticism  and  the  addition  of  new  material,  to  some 
of  the  most  prominent  primary  instructors  and  supervisors 
in  the  country ;  the  help  that  came  from  these  sources  was 
noteworthy.  The  names  and  positions  of  these  editors  are 
given  on  preceding  pages  in  this  volume ;  each  is  a  recognized 
authority  in  the  department  assigned. 

In  addition  to  Miss  Black's  extended  scholastic  prepara- 
tion, she  has  also  had  experience  as  a  primary  teacher  and 
supervisor,  as  principal  of  one  of  the  Chicago  public  schools, 
and  as  critic  teacher  in  one  of  the  foremost  schools  for  train- 
ing teachers  in  the  country.  From  her  knowledge  and 
experience  Miss  Black  was  able  to  embody  in  the  new  work 
the  most  successful  modern  methods  that  are  sanctioned  by 
leading  educators. 


vi  Preface 

In  volumes  One  and  Two  the  authors  and  editors  have 
endeavored  to  produce  a  work  which  will  embody  the  prin- 
ciples and  practices  in  vogue  in  the  best  state  normal  schools, 
and  to  place  this  matter  before  the  teacher  in  such  form  that 
she  can  make  it  her  own. 

The  chapters  present  subject-matter  in  methods  at  once 
plain  and  practical,  such  as  will  prove  an  everyday  help  in 
the  schoolroom.  The  methods  and  devices  given  are  in 
accord  with  those  fundamental  principles  upon  which  all 
teaching  must  rest,  while  at  the  same  time  psychological  and 
other  technical  terms  have  been  omitted.  Care  has  been 
taken  to  make  the  style  so  simple  and  the  statements  so  clear 
that  the  text  can  be  readily  understood  by  any  primary 
teacher. 

In  the  first  two  volumes  of  Public  School  Methods  it  has 
been  the  aim  of  the  publishers  to  aid  the  primary  teacher  in 
solving  the  problems  with  which  she  is  constantly  confronted 
— problems  of  method,  of  discipline,  of  organization  and  of 
management.  To  this  end  there  are  included  many  things 
not  elsewhere  available  in  printed  form.  Here  are  found 
answers  to  a  multitude  of  questions  that  often  perplex  the 
teacher  and  which  too  frequently  in  the  past  have  gone  un- 
answered because  the  teacher  has  felt  an  embarrassment  in 
asking  about  them. 

The  work  abounds  in  illustrative  material,  such  as  model 
lessons  which  may  be  carried  without  change  into  the  actual 
work  of  the  class,  selections  from  literature  and  valuable  lists 
of  reference  books.  The  teacher-student  is  not  left  alone 
with  abstract  principles,  but  is  given  practical,  concrete 
illustrations  of  every  principle  discussed. 

The  very  many  illustrations  serve  the  one  purpose  of 
explaining  the  text.  In  many  departments  they  are  used  as 
the  foundation  of  model  lessons. 

The  Table  of  Contents  contains  an  analytical  outline  of  each 
chapter,  and  in  the  Index  may  be  found  such  cross  references 
as  will  enable  the  teacher  to  correlate  the  subjects  or  to  find 
quickly  all  the  material  for  the  discussion  of  any  topic. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  ONE 

Discipline  page 

i.  Discipline  Defined x 

2.  Ideals 3 

3.  The  Ends  of  School  Discipline 5 

4.  Habits 5 

5.  Order  and  Disorder 7 

6.  Whispering 8 

7.  Thieving 10 

8.  Tardiness  and  Absence n 

9.  Restlessness 12 

10.  Obedience 13 

1 1 .  Rules  or  Laws 13 

(a)  Characteristics  of  School  Laws 14 

(b)  Enforcement  of  Rules 14 

(c)  Preventing  Disorder 15 

12.  Need  of  More  Sympathy 16 

13.  Maxims  and  Proverbs 16 

14.  Happiness  as  a  Factor  in  Discipline 17 

15.  Causes  of  Disorder 18 

(a)  The  Teacher 18 

(b)  Physical  Condition  of  the  Pupil 19 

(c)  Foul  Air 20 

16.  Silent  Influences 20 

17.  Punishment  for  Primary  Grades 21 

18.  Rewards  and  Prizes 22 

19.  Summary 22 

20.  Books  for  Teachers 23 

Test  Questions 23 

CHAPTER  TWO 

First  Year  Reading 

1.  Importance  of  Reading 25 

2.  Methods  Discussed 25 

(a)  The  Alphabet  Method 25 

(b)  The  Phonic  Method 26 

(c)  The  Word  Method 27 

(d)  The  Sentence  Method 28 

(e)  The  Combination  or  Eclectic  Method 28 

vii 


viii  Contents 

PAGE 

3.  How  to  Unify  Methods 28 

4.  Early  Lessons 29 

(a)  The  First  Lesson 29 

(b)  The  Second  Lesson 30 

(c)  Punctuation  Marks 31 

(d)  The  Use  of  Capitals 32 

5.  Later  Lessons t,3 

(a)  Review ^s 

(b)  New  Lesson ^t, 

(c)  Action  Sentences 34 

(d)  Pictures  and  Reading 35 

(e)  Other  Lessons 37 

6.  Oral  Reading 37 

7.  Local  Errors  in  Pronunciation 38 

8.  The  Alphabet 39 

9.  From  Script  to  Print 40 

10.  Chart  Making 41 

n.  Adaptation  of  the  Method  to  the  School 42 

12.  Subjects  for  Blackboard  Lessons 46 

13.  How  Long  Shall  Blackboard  Lessons  Continue 47 

14.  Introduction  to  Books 49 

1 5.  Supplementary  Reading 49 

16.  Preparation  of  a  Lesson 51 

Method 52 

17.  Reviews 53 

(a)  Two  Plans 53 

(b)  An  Illustration 54 

(c)  Illustrative  Lesson 55 

18.  The  Hektograph 56 

Test  Questions 57 


CHAPTER  THREE 
Second  Year  Reading  and  Phonics 

second  year  reading 

1.  Need  of  Reviews 59 

2.  Value  of  Supplementary  Reading  Matter 60 

3.  Need  of  Preparing  Reading  Lessons 61 

4.  Conditions  Contrasted 61 

5.  New  Phrases 63 

6.  Incentives 64 

7.  How  to  Use  Incentives 65 

8.  Teaching  Children  to  Study 67 


Contents  ix 

PAGE 

9.  Application  of  Theory  to  Practice 68 

(a)  Preparation 68 

(b)  Presentation 69 

(c)  Plan 69 

(d)  Independent  Study 72 

10.  Syllabication 72 

11.  Expression  in  Reading 72 

12.  Rules  for  Criticism 74 

13.  Corrections  by  Pupils 74 

14.  Directions  to  Give  Pupils 76 

15.  Punctuation  and  Reading 76 

(a)  Illustration 77 

(b)  Drill 77 

16.  Rules  for  Capitals 78 

17.  Poetry 78 

18.  Poems  Suitable  for  Second  Year 78 

19.  Sources  From  Which  to  Draw 79 

20.  Supplementary  Reading 79 

21.  Myths,  Fables  and  Legends 81 

22.  Amount  of  Reading  Required 82 

23.  How  to  Use  the  Readers 82 

phonics  for  first  two  grades 

24.  A  Separate  Study 83 

25.  Training  Ear  and  Tongue 83 

(a)  Training  the  Ear 83 

(b)  Training  the  Tongue 84 

26.  Associating  Sound  and  Symbol 84 

(a)  Resemblances 85 

(b)  Initial  Vowels 85 

(c)  First  Use  of  Phonics  in  Reading 86 

27.  Diacritic  Marks 86 

28.  Syllabication 89 

29.  Summary 89 

30.  Suggestive  Lesson  One 9° 

31.  Suggestive  Lesson  Two 9° 

32.  Suggestive  Lesson  Three 91 

3^.  Conclusion 92 

Test  Questions 92 

CHAPTER  FOUR 

Third  Year  Reading 

1.  The  Situation 94 

2.  Order  of  Procedure 95 

(a)    Continuation  of  Previous  Work 0  5 


x  Contents 

PAGE 

(b)  Use  of  the  Sentence 95 

(c)  Grouping 95 

3.  Breathing 96 

4.  Bad  Habits 97 

5.  Rules  for  Readers 98 

6.  The  Alphabet 98 

7.  Phonics 99 

8.  Rules  for  Pronunciation 100 

9.  Sight  Reading  for  the  First  Three  Years 101 

10.  Silent  Reading  and  Oral  Reading 102 

11.  The  Critical  Period 103 

(a)  Prevent  Faults 103 

(b)  Bring  Out  the  Thought 103 

(c)  Criticisms 103 

(d)  Interest 104 

12.  Illustrative  Lesson 104 

13.  Selection  of  Reading  Matter no 

(a)  Myths,  Fables  and  Legends no 

(b)  Other  Reading no 

(c)  Suggestions 111 

14.  Poems 113 

15.  Supplementary  Reading 113 

16.  Reading  and  Study 114 

17.  Racial  Literature 115 

18.  Reading  as  an  Artistic  Accomplishment 117 

19.  Causes  of  Poor  Reading  in  Schools 118 

20.  Material  for  Drills 119 

Drill  Exercise  for  Articulation 120 

21.  Aids 122 

(a)  Books  for  Teachers 122 

(b)  Books  for  Pupils 123 

Test  Questions 123 


CHAPTER  FIVE 

Language 

1.  The  Problem  Stated 125 

2.  The  First  Step 125 

3.  The  Child's  Equipment 126 

4.  The  Teacher's  Part 127 

5.  Every  Lesson  a  Language  Lesson 128 

6.  Language  Related  to  Other  Subjects 128 

7.  Undesirable  Lessons  and  Their  Correctives 129 


Contents  xi 

PAGE 

8.  Oral  Reproduction I2o 

9.  Similes  and  Metaphors I3o 

10.  Methods  Illustrated 1-,I 

11.  Suggestive  Exercises i-,I 

12.  Rhythm  and  Rhyme j^, 

13.  Other  Phases  of  Oral  Reproduction 133 

14.  Technical  Forms ^c; 

15.  Historical  Stories,  Biographies  and  Journeys 137 

16.  Language  Games 138 

17.  Oral  Composition  of  Plays 139 

18.  Language  and    Drawing 139 

19.  Written  Language 139 

20.  Steps  in  Written  Work 140 

21.  Picture  Lessons 143 

22.  Outline  for  Last  Month  of  First  Year 143 

(a)  The  Questions 144 

(b)  The  Story  (Approximate) 144 

23.  Lesson  for  Latter  Part  of  the  Second  Year 145 

(a)  Blackboard  Outline 145 

(b)  The  Story  (Approximate) 145 

24.  Rhythm  and  Rhyme 145 

25.  For  the  Third  Grade 146 

(a)  General  Instructions 146 

(b)  The  Story  (Approximate) 146 

26.  Other  Subjects  for  Lessons 148 

27.  Language  Through  Literature 148 

28.  Written  Reviews 148 

(a)  Blackboard  Outline 148 

(b)  The  Story  (Approximate) 149 

29.  For  the  Latter  Part  of  Second  Year 149 

(a)  Blackboard  Outline 149 

(b)  The  Story  (Approximate) 149 

30.  For  the  Last  Part  of  the  Third  Year 150 

(a)  Blackboard  Outline 15° 

(b)  The  Story  (Approximate) 15° 

31.  Rhythm  and  Rhyme l52 

32.  Initials  and  Abbreviations i52 

^^.  Teaching  English  to  Foreigners 153 

34.  Letter  Writing I  5^ 

Original  Writings JS7 

35.  Memorizing  Selections J58 

36.  Conclusion I^° 

37.  Aids l6° 

Test  Questions l6x 


xii  Contents 

CHAPTER  SIX 

Dramatization,  Story  Telling,  Games,  Songs 

dramatization  page 

i.  Use  and  Abuse 163 

2.  A  Distinction 163 

3.  General  Directions 163 

4.  Material 165 

5.  Illustrative  Lesson 165 

6.  Work  for  the  Third  Grade 166 

story  telling 

7.  Value 167 

8.  Selection  of  Stories 168 

(a)  Fairy  Tales 16S 

(b)  Nature  Stories 168 

(c)  Biographical  Tales 169 

(d)  History  Stories 169 

(e)  Travel  and  Adventure 169 

9.  Qualities  of  a  Good  Story 170 

(a)  Action 170 

(b)  Sequence 170 

(c)  Distinctness 170 

(d)  Rhythm 170 

10.  How  to  Tell  Stories 170 

(a)  Know  Your  Story 170 

(b)  Enjoy  the  Story  Yourself 170 

(c)  Convey  Your  Tale 170 

(d)  Tell  the  Tale 170 

11.  Favorite  Stories  of  Children 171 

12.  Some  Schoolroom  Uses  of  the  Story 171 

(a)  Expression 171 

(b)  Art 172 

(c)  Written  Work 172 

(d)  Dramatization 172 

(e)  Power  of  Attention 173 

13.  Books  for  Teachers 173 

games  and  plays 

14.  Purposes 175 

(a)  Recreation 175 

(b)  General  Development 175 

(c)  Individuality .  .  176 

15.  Relation  of  Play  to  Work 177 

16.  Selecting  Plays  and  Games 177 


Contents  xiii 


PAGE 


17.  Method  of  Procedure I77 

18.  Miscellaneous  Games I7g 

(a)  Tiptoe  Catch x  -g 

(b)  Flying  Cloud ......'.'.'.'.'.  ...'.  I78 

(c)  Trade  Game I7g 

(d)  Skip  Tag '.".'.'.'.'.'..'.'.'.  178 

19.  Marching  Games 179 

(a)  Presto,  Change l7o 

(b)  Follow  Your  Leader i7q 

(c)  Marching  with  Wands I79 


20.  Races. 


179 


(a)  Crow  Race I7g 

(b)  Eraser  Race i7p 

(c)  Relay  Eraser  Race j8o 

(d)  Relay  Touch  Race x8o 

21.  Rhythm  Games ^o 

(a)  Balls !8o 

(b)  Rhythm  with  Wands 181 

(c)  Desk  as  Apparatus 181 

22.  Ball  and  Bean  Bag  Games 181 

(a)  Toss  and  Catch 181 

(b)  Bag  in  the  Square 181 

23.  Games  for  Training  the  Powers  of  Observation 181 

(a)  Sharp  Eyes  Games 182 

(b)  Sharp  Ears  Games 184 

(c)  Sensitive  Fingers  Games 185 

24.  Other  Common  Games 186 

25.  Books  for  the  Teacher 186 

songs 

26.  Value 187 

27.  Classification 187 

28.  Dramatization 187 

29.  How  to  Teach  the  Song 188 

30.  How  to  Phrase  the  Song 188 

31.  Interpretation 189 

32.  Songs 189 

33.  List  of  Books 202 

Test  Questions 202 

CHAPTER  SEVEN 

First  Year  Number  Work 

1 .  Introduction 204 

2.  Value  of  Number  Work 204 

3.  Origin  of  the  Number  Concept 205 


xiv  Contents 

PAGE 

4.  Methods  in  Vogue 208 

5.  Ground  Usually  Covered  During  the  First  Year 208 

6.  Plan 209 

Counting 209 

-    Illustrative  Lesson 209 

(a)  Lesson  in  Measurement 209 

(b)  Devices  for  Counting 212 

(c)  Correlation  of  Number  and  Language 214 

(d)  Lessons  to  Cultivate  Ability  to  Judge  Measurements  2 1 5 

(e)  Lesson  to  Secure  Rapidity  and  Accuracy  in  the  Com- 

bination and  Separation  of  Small  Numbers 218 

(f)  The  Use  of  Charts 220 

(g)  Lesson  in  Written  Work 222 

(h)    Lesson  on  Halves,  Thirds  and  Fourths 223 

(i)     Lesson  in  Multiplication 224 

(j)     Lesson  on  the  Use  of  the  Ruler 227 

(k)    Lesson  in  Counting  by  Tens 227 

8.  Correlation  op  Number  Work  with  Other  Studies.  .  .  .  230 

9.  Aids 230 

(a)  Books  for  Teachers 230 

(b)  Number  Games 230 

Test  Questions 231 

CHAPTER  EIGHT 

Second  Year  Number  Work 

1.  The  Work  of  the  Second  Year 232 

2.  Facts  That  the  Teacher  Should  Remember 232 

3.  Order  of  Procedure 233 

4.  Primary  Number  Facts 235 

5.  Devices 236 

(a)  Cards 236 

(b)  Number  Circle 236 

6.  Illustrative  Lessons 237 

(a)  Addition 237 

(b)  Subtraction 241 

(c)  Simple  Multiplication 243 

(d)  Multiplication  Involving  the  "Carrying"  Process..  .  .  247 

(e)  Multiplication  of  Numbers  in  Which  the  Multiplier 

Consists  of  Two  Figures 247 

(f)  Division 250 

7.  Illustrative  Lessons  in  Fractions 256 

(a)    A  Lesson  to  Develop  the  Rule  for  Finding  a  Fraction 

of  Any  Number 256 


Contents  xv 

PAGE 

(b)  A  Lesson  to  Develop  the  Relation  Between  Fourths 

and  Eighths 258 

(c)  Suggestions  for  Teaching  One  Half  of  Five,  One  Half 

of  Seven,  Etc 260 

Test  Questions 260 


CHAPTER  NINE 

Third  Year  Number  Work 

1.  Text-Book  Work 262 

(a)  Preliminary  Steps 262 

(b)  Preparatory  Lessons 262 

(c)  Illustrative  Lesson 263 

2.  Reduction  of  Denominate  Numbers  266 

3.  Addition  of  Fractions 269 

4.  Ratio  and  Proportion 273 

5.  Written  Work 276 

6.  Decimals 277 

7.  Other  Features  of  Third  Year  Work 279 

8.  Typical  Problems 280 

Test  Questions 280 

CHAPTER  TEN 

Nature  Study 

introduction 

1.  Educational  Purposes 282 

2.  Why  Nature  Study  is  Important 282 

3.  Apparatus  Needed 283 

(a)  Reference  Books 283 

(b)  Stencils 283 

(c)  Illustrated  Flower  and  Seed  Catalogues 283 

(d)  Opera  Glasses 283 

(e)  A  Microscope 284 

(f)  Charts 284 

(g)  Note  Books 284 

FIRST   year 

4.  Plant  Life 285 

(a)  Purpose  of  Lessons 285 

(b)  Observations 285 

5.  Animal  Life 2&° 

(a)  Purpose  of  Lessons 286 

(b)  Observations 286 


xvi  Contents 

PAGE 

6.  Minerals 287 

(a)  Purpose  of  Lessons 287 

(b)  Observations 287 

(c)  Experiments 287 

7.  Natural  Forces 288 

Observations 288 

8.  Study  of  the  Weather 288 

second  year 

9.  Plant  Life 289 

10.  Animal  Life 289 

11.  Natural  Forces 289 

12.  Weather  Conditions 290 

13.  Summary 290 

third  year 

14.  Work  Expanded 290 

type  studies 

15.  Our  Tree 291 

(a)  General  Plan  of  Lesson 291 

(b)  Records 292 

16.  The  Robin 292 

(a)  Arrivals  in  Spring 292 

(b)  Habits 292 

(c)  Nest  and  Young 292 

(d)  Correlated  Subjects.    . . .' 293 

(e)  Literature 293 

(f)  Riddle 293 

(g)  A  Poem 293 

17.  The  Study  of  Bulbs 294 

18.  The  Squirrel 296 

(a)  Purpose  of  the  Lesson 297 

(b)  Plan 297 

(c)  The  Outline 297 

(d)  Illustrative  Lessons 300 

(e)  Written  Exercises 305 

other  lessons 

19.  Literature 306 

20.  Recognition  of  Deciduous  Trees 307 

(a)  In  Summer 307 

(b)  In  Winter 307 

21.  Recognition  of  Common  Evergreens 308 

(a)    Pines 308 


Contents 


xvn 


PAGE 

(b)  Spruces 3o8 

(c)  Hemlocks „0g 

(d)  Firs 3o8 

(e)  Arbor  Vitae ,0g 

22.  To  Lend  Interest  to  the  Study  of  Evergreens 309 

23.  Reviews 3o9 

(a)  A  Good  Plan 3IO 

(b)  A  Second  Plan 3IO 

(c)  A  Third  Plan 310 

(d)  A  Fourth  Plan 3IO 

24.  Regular  Study  by  Seasons ,n 

25.  Suggestions  for  Spring  Study 3n 

(a)  Wild  Flowers 3I1 

(b)  School  Gardens 312 

(c)  Cultivated  Flowers 312 

26.  Schoolroom  Gardens 3I2 

(a)  Window  Boxes 312 

(b)  Tumbler  Gardens 312 

(c)  A  Sponge  Garden 313 

(d)  Vegetable  Cups 313 

27.  Suggestions  for  Summer  Work 313 

38.  Suggestions  for  Fall  Work 314 

(a)  Wild  Flowers 314 

(b)  Cultivated  Flowers 314 

(c)  Seeds 314 

(d)  Roots 314 

(e)  Leaves 314 

(f)  Preparations  for  Winter 315 

29.  Suggestions  for  Winter  Work 315 

3°-  Aids 315 

(a)  Books  on  Trees 315 

(b)  Books  to  Aid  General  Plant  Study 316 

Test  Questions 316 


CHAPTER  ELEVEN 
Nature  Study — (Continued) 

GENERAL    SUGGESTIONS 

i.  Extending  the  Work 318 

2.  How  Much  to  Attempt 318 

3.  Conditions  Contrasted 319 

4.  Preparation  Needed 3ao 


xviii  Contents 


birds  page 

5.  Importance  of  Bird  Study 320 

6.  Protection  of  Birds 321 

7.  Bird  Food 321 

(a)  The  Oriole 322 

(b)  The  Cedar  Bird,  Waxwing  or  Cherry  Bird 322 

(c)  The  Bluejay 323 

(d)  The  Catbird 323 

(e)  The  Rose-Breasted  Grosbeak 323 

({)    The  Cuckoo  or  Rain  Crow 323 

(g)    The  Common  Crow 323 

(h)    Woodpeckers 323 

(i)     The  Meadow  Lark 324 

(j)    Crows  and  Blackbirds 324 

(k)    The  Robin 324 

8.  Recognition  of  Birds 325 

(a)  When  to  Begin 325 

(b)  Where  to  Begin 326 

(c)  Facts  to  be  Learned 326 

9.  The  Meadow  Lark 326 

10.  The  Flicker 327 

11.  The  Crow 327 

(a)  Illustrations 327 

(b)  Where  Found 327 

(c)  Description 327 

(d)  Food 328 

(e)  Nest 328 

(0     Eggs 328 

(g)    Seat  Work 328 

(h)    Language,  Literature  and  Songs 328 

12.  The  Duck 328 

(a)  Points  to  Consider 328 

(b)  Questions 329 

(c)  Literature 329 

13.  Suggestive  Studies 329 

14.  How  to  Help  the  Birds 330 

15.  Bird  Lore 330 

16.  Nests  and  Nesting  Time 331 

17.  The  Migration  of  Birds 333 

(a)  Points  to  Settle 333 

(b)  Facts  to  Learn 133 

(c)  Records 333 

18.  Books  for  Teachers 334 

(a)  Reference  Books 335 

(b)  Magazines  and  Pamphlets 335 


Contents 


xix 


insects  page 

19.  Important  Facts .  335 

20.  How  to  Tell  the  Butterflies  from  the  Moths 336 

(a)  Butterflies 336 

(b)  Moths 336 

ax.  Butterfly  Caterpillars  and  Moth  Caterpillars 336 

22.  Caterpillar  Food 337 

23.  Formation  of  the  Chrysalis 337 

24.  Outline  for  Butterfly  Lesson 337 

(a)  Material 337 

(b)  Method 337 

25.  Questions  on  the  Mourning  Cloak 338 

26.  A  Box  for  Cocoons 339 

27.  Butterfly  Seasons 339 

28.  Insect  Preparation  for  Winter 340 

(a)  Brown  Wasp 34° 

(b)  Hornet  and  Yellow-Jacket 340 

(c)  Bumble-Bee 341 

(d)  Ant 34i 

(e)  Mud  Wasp  and  Digger  Wasp 341 

(f)  Ichneumon  Fly 34 1 

(g)  Ground  Bettle 34i 

(h)    Ladybird  Beetle 34* 

(i)     Black  Blister  Beetle 34* 

(j)     May  Beetle 34i 

(k)    Long-Horned  Beetle 34* 

(1)     House  Fly 34i 

(m)  Fall  Canker- Worm 34i 

(n)    Bud- Worm 34i 

29.  Ants 34i 

30.  Crickets 342 

31.  Helps 343 

ANIMALS 

32.  Familiar  Animals 343 

33.  Animals  Preparing  for  Winter 344 

34.  The  Rabbit 344 

(a)  His  Coloring  a  Protection 344 

(b)  Nose 344 

(c)  Hind  and  Fore  Legs 345 

(d)  Tail 345 

(e)  Divided  Lip 345 

(f)  Food 345 

(g)  Ears 345 

(h)    Literature 345 


XX 


Contents 


PAGE 

35.  The  Goat 346 

(a)  Familiar  Names 346 

(b)  Distinguishing  Characteristics  of  Billy  Goat 346 

(c)  Distinguishing  Characteristics  of  Nanny  Goat 346 

(d)  Outline  for  Study 346 

(e)  Literature : 347 

36.  The  Cow 347 

(a)  Study  Outline 347 

(b)  Additional  Questions 347 

37.  Protection  of  Wild  Animals 347 

38.  Books  for  Teachers 348 

Test  Questions 349 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

PACE 

Friedrich  Wilhelm  August  Froebel.     Halftone Frontispiece 

Can't  You  Talk ?     Halftone 35 

Chart  Page  with  Names  of  Boys 42 

Chart  Page  with  Names  of  Girls 43 

"Good  Morning,  Little  Red  Riding  Hood,"  Said  the  Wolp. 

Color  Plate 51 

Young  Folk  at  the  Canal.     Halftone 59 

Illustration    by   Third   Grade   Pupil:    The    Lion    Stepping 

on  the  Mouse 79 

Illustration  by  Third  Grade  Pupil:   The  Lion  in  the  Net.     81 

Recognition  of  Sounds.     Halftone 85 

Foreign  Lands 105 

Lilacs.     Halftone 144 

Mother  Nature's  Children.     Color  Plate 150 

Columbus  Before  the  Court  of  Spain.     Halftone 166 

"Somebody  Has  Been  Sleeping  in  My  Bed,  and  Here  She 

Is."     Halftone 168 

Winding  the  Maypole.     Halftone 174 

Number  Chart  Showing  Facts  Connected  with  the  Number  7  221 

Number  Charts  Showing  Plan  for  Counting  by  Tens 228 

Device  for  Drill  in  Addition 336 

Lesson  in  Number.     Halftone 269 

The  Robin's  Nest.     Halftone 292 

Some  of  Our  Favorite  Flowers.     Color  Plate 314 


CHAPTER   ONE 

DISCIPLINE 

Train  up  a  child  in  the  way  he  should  go;  and  when  he  is  old, 
he  will  not  depart  from  it. — Solomon. 

The  end  and  aim  of  all  education  is  the  development  of  char- 
acter.— Col.  Francis  W.  Parker. 

1.  Discipline  Defined.  Discipline  is  that  wise  adjust- 
ment of  plans,  rules  and  conditions  that  keeps  the  pupils 
working  towards  the  desired  goal  willingly,  happily,  patiently 
and  successfully,  without  consciousness  of  friction  or  undue 
fatigue. 

The  school  whose  pupils  are  interested  and  busy,  doing 
their  assigned  work  quietly,  happily  and  at  the  right  time, 
with  no  evidence  of  unpleasant  restraint  or  unrest,  and 
from  no  other  apparent  motive  than  that  they  love  their 
work  and  their  teacher — that  school  has  reached  the  highest 
ideal  of  proper  discipline.  Such  a  school,  you  may  be  sure, 
has  a  teacher  who  cherishes  high  ideals  of  character-building, 
and  by  love,  sympathy,  tact  and  patience  has  brought  her 
pupils  into  happy  fellowship. 

In  such  cases,  teacher  and  pupils  are  working  cheerfully 
and  happily  together,  loving  the  work  and  honoring  them- 
selves and  one  another,  the  one  purpose  common  to  all  being 
to  do  the  best  possible  thing  for  the  school  and  for  them- 
selves as  units  in  the  school.  The  motto,  expressed  or  unex- 
pressed, of  such  a  school  is,  "Each  for  all,  and  all  for  the 
Right." 

Perhaps  the  sorely-tried  teacher,  working  under  many 
disadvantages,  may  say  that  such  a  school  in  any  grade  is 
nearly,  if  not  wholly,  impossible.  Perhaps  most  of  you 
may  say  that  in  a  primary  school  such  results  are  always 
impossible. 

At  this  moment  we  distinctly  recall  arriving  at  a  small 
village  whose  only  school  building  contained  but  four  rooms. 
Reaching   the   schoolhouse,    we   entered   the   vestibule   and 


2  Public  School  Methods 

from  that  at  once  stepped  to  the  door  of  the  primary  room, 
which  stood  hospitably  open.  To  our  surprise,  we  saw  a 
room  well  filled  with  boys  and  girls  from  five  to  eight  years 
of  age,  but  no  teacher.  Looking  up  brightly  as  they  heard 
our  footsteps,  they  smilingly  responded  to  our  "  Good  Morn- 
ing" and  explained  that  their  teacher  was  "upstairs,  giving 
the  music  lesson." 

"And  you  are  able  to  take  care  of  yourselves  without 
a  teacher?" 

"Oh,  yes;  we  do  it  every  day,"  came  the  prompt  reply. 

"Do  you  tell  her  of  the  bad  things  you  do  when  she  is 
out  of  the  room?"  queried  the  supervisor,  teasingly. 

"We  don't  do  bad  things,"  flashed  a  dark-eyed  little 
girl  from  the  larger  group;  "we'd  be  ashamed  to.  Our 
teacher  trusts  us." 

A  glance  sufficed  to  show  that  this  was  the  general  senti- 
ment of  the  room,  and  the  visitor  hastened  to  apologize  for 
the  unwarranted  question  and  to  commend  the  school  for 
being  so  truly  trustworthy. 

Those  children  understood  that  their  teacher  would  not 
leave  them  except  when  compelled  by  other  duties,  and 
considered  it  a  matter  of  loving  loyalty  and  pride  to  uphold 
the  good  name  of  their  room  during  these  unavoidable 
absences.  This  was  demonstrated  again  and  again  during 
the  several  days  of  the  inspector's  visit. 

A  few  things  worthy  of  remembrance  were  noted  in  this 
case:  (i)  There  was  perfect  sympathy  and  confidence 
between  this  teacher  and  her  pupils.  (2)  To  guard  them 
against  the  many  temptations  that  result  from  idleness, 
she  always  assigned  definite  work  for  each  pupil  to  do  dur- 
ing the  half -hour  of  her  absence.  (3)  She  never  failed  to 
examine  the  work  on  her  return.  (4)  She  always  thanked 
the  little  ones  for  the  good  order  they  maintained  during 
her  absence — not  always  in  formal  expressions  of  thanks, 
but  more  often  by  a  quick,  smiling  glance  of  appreciation 
or  such  cordially  uttered  remarks  as  "This  is  what  I  like 
to  find,"  "This  does  me  good,"  "This  makes  my  heart  feel 


Discipline  3 

warm,"  "This  makes  me  happy."  (5)  This  teacher  was 
only  twenty  years  old,  and  the  visit  occurred  before  she 
had  completed  her  first  year  of  teaching.  (6)  She  had  been 
trained  for  teaching  in  a  city  training  school  for  teachers; 
and,  moreover,  she  possessed  those  great  essentials  to  a 
primary  teacher's  success,  "honest  lovingness  and  patient 
firmness." 

2.  Ideals.  In  discipline,  as  in  instruction,  the  teacher 
must  have  definite  aims.  She  must  set  a  standard  of  char- 
acter which  she  wishes  her  pupils  to  attain,  and  then  strive 
so  to  manage  her  school  that  most  of  her  pupils,  at  least, 
will  approach  nearer  to  her  ideal  each  day.  No  teacher 
can  succeed  in  building  character  unless  she  possesses  high 
ideals  of  excellence  which  she  expects  her  pupils  so  reach. 
She  must  not  only  form  these  ideals  herself;  she  must  also 
lead  her  pupils  to  do  the  same.  Do  not  be  afraid  of  the 
dream  side  of  life. 

"The  dream  side  of  life  is  the  great  side  of  life.  The  present 
and  the  future  are  full  of  new  possibilities  and  of  unknown  quantities; 
we  can  be  more  successful  discoverers  and  explorers  in  the  child 
realm  than  we  have  ever  been  before." 

"Think  what  you  want  your  pupils  to  be  ten,  twenty  years, 
hence,  and  labor  to  set  up  now  the  ideals  to  which,  through  years, 
their  souls  shall  grow." 

These  quotations  from  leading  educators  show  that  the 
true  aim  of  discipline  extends  far  beyond  securing  an  orderly 
school.  That  similar  views  are  held  by  others  may  be  seen 
from  the  following  quotations.  The  first  quotation  is  from 
an  address  by  Ex-President  Roosevelt,  delivered  at  the 
founding  of  St.  Patrick's  Church,  Washington,  D.  C,  Nov. 
20,  1904.     He  said: 

I  wish  to-day  to  dwell  upon  this  thought — that  while  in  this 
country  we  need  wise  laws,  honestly  and  fearlessly  executed,  and 
while  we  cannot  afford  to  tolerate  anything  but  the  highest  standard 
in  the  public  service  of  the  government,  yet  in  the  last  analysis  the 
future  of  our  country  must  depend  upon  the  quality  of  the  individual 
home,  of  the  individual  man  or  woman  in  that  home.  The  future 
of  this  country  depends  upon  the  way  in  which  the  average  man 
and  the  average  woman  in  it  does  his  or  her  duty,  and  that  largely 


4  Public  School  Methods 

depends  upon  the  way  in  which  the  average  boy  or  girl  is  brought 
up.  .  .  . 

I  wish  to  see  in  the  average  American  citizen  the  development 
of  the  two  sets  of  qualities  which  we  can  roughly  indicate  as  sweet- 
ness and  strength — the  qualities  on  the  one  hand  which  make  the 
man  able  to  hold  his  own,  and  those  which  on  the  other  hand  make 
him  jealous  for  the  rights  of  others  just  as  much  as  for  his  own  rights. 
We  must  have  both  sets  of  qualities. 

In  the  first  place  the  man  must  have  the  power  to  hold  his 
own.  I  do  not  much  care  for  the  coward  or  the  moral  weakling. 
I  want  each  of  you  boys — and  the  girls  just  as  much — and  each 
of  you  young  men  and  young  women,  to  have  the  qualities  without 
which  people  may  be  amiable  and  pleasant  while  things  go  well, 
but  without  which  they  cannot  succeed  in  times  of  stern  trial. 

I  wish  to  see  in  the  man,  manliness;  in  the  woman,  womanli- 
ness. I  wish  to  see  courage,  perseverance,  the  willingness  to  face 
work,  to  face  danger,  if  it  is  necessary,  the  determination  not  to 
shrink  back  when  temporarily  beaten  in  life,  but  to  come  up  again 
and  wrest  triumph  from  defeat. 

I  want  to  see  you,  men,  strong  men  and  brave  men;  and,  in 
addition,  I  wish  to  see  each  man  of  you  feel  that  his  strength  and 
his  courage  but  make  him  the  worse  unless  to  that  strength  and 
courage  are  joined  the  qualities  of  tenderness  towards  those  he  loves 
who  are  dependent  upon  him,  and  of  right  dealing  with  all  his 
neighbors. 

The  second  quotation,  which  is  no  less  valuable,  is  from 
a  paper  prepared  by  a  prominent  business  man,  who  at  the 
time  was  president  of  the  board  of  education  in  his  city. 
He  said: 

The  thing  is  to  teach  correctly  man's  correct  relation  to  man 
and  to  bring  it  home  so  effectually  that  the  child  will  remember 
the  lesson  and  practice  it  during  life.  The  great  trouble  with  man- 
kind is  selfishness.  The  limitations  upon  personal  action  should 
be  taught  the  young.  They  should  be  taught  that  one's  own  per- 
sonal rights  end  exactly  where  another's  rights  begin  and  be  taught 
to  observe  that  line  with  scrupulous  care.  ...  I  would  teach  the 
young  that  the  most  honorable  man  is  the  honest  and  industrious 
citizen  who  uses  all  his  faculties  for  his  own  and  society's  good, 
without  regard  to  the  capacity  in  which  he  is  employed. 

I  would  teach  them  that  the  man  to  honor  is  the  useful  one, 
and  that  the  one  to  shun  is  the  dissolute,  lazy  one,  no  matter  what 
his  apparent  condition  in  the  world,  no  matter  how  much  money 
he  has  or  how  engaging  his  personality. 


Discipline  5 

I  would  impress  upon  them  the  beauty  and  excellence  of  all 
things  which  make  for  honor,  integrity  and  character,  and  the  hideous- 
ness  of  all  things  which  detract  therefrom. 

Finally,  before  leaving  the  subject  of  ideals,  we  would 
commend  to  all  teachers,  for  inspiration  and  help,  the 
Teacher's  Creed,  by  Edwin  Osgood  Grover,  emphasizing 
particularly  the  following  extracts:  "I  believe  in  boys  and 
girls,  the  men  and  women  of  a  great  to-morrow.  ...  I 
believe  in  the  curse  of  ignorance,  in  the  efficiency  of  schools, 
in  the  dignity  of  teaching  and  in  the  joy  of  serving  others. 
....  I  believe  in  beauty  in  the  schoolroom,  in  the  home, 
in  daily  life,  and  in  out-of-doors.  ...  I  believe  in  laughter, 
in  love,  in  faith,  in  all  ideals  and  distant  hopes  that  lure 
us  on.  ..." 

3.  The  Ends  of  School  Discipline.  The  ends  to  be  secured 
by  means  of  school  discipline  are  "(i)  to  train  pupils  in 
self-control  and  self-direction — self-conduct;  (2)  to  train 
the  will  to  act  habitually  from  right  motives.  Among  the 
great  occasions  for  will-training  are  the  development  of  the 
school  virtues,  punctuality,  regularity,  neatness,  accuracy, 
silence,  industry  and  obedience;  also  to  strengthen  the  gen- 
eral virtues,  truthfulness,  good-will,  kindness,  courtesy, 
generosity,  cheerfulness,  unselfishness,  honesty,  justice  and 
the  like."1 

It  is  easy  to  see  that  the  second  end  is  specific  and  demands 
specific  results;  also  that  the  first  is  general  in  its  nature 
and  when  completed  the  result  is,  also,  general,  being  no 
less  than  the  poise  and  balance  of  a  well-rounded  character, 
a  character  which  embodies  all  the  virtues  enumerated  by 
Dr.  White. 

Caution.  Note  that  will-training,  not  will-breaking,  is 
what  is  needed,  and  that  the  will  is  to  be  trained  to  "act 
habitually  from  right  motives" — two  most  important  con- 
siderations. 

4.  Habits.  A  habit  of  thought  or  of  action  is  caused  by 
repeating   a   thought    or   act    until   it   becomes   automatic. 

1  Emerson  E.  White:     School  Management. 


6  Public  School  Methods 

Then  it  is  called  into  evidence  always  by  the  recurrence 
of  the  same  condition  or  others  similar  to  those  that  first 
caused  it.  Habits  are  strengthened  by  exercise  and  die 
out  gradually  from  neglect  and  disuse.  Hence,  it  is  all- 
important  that  the  teacher  of  young  children  should  make 
a  practice  of  commending  by  word  or  manner  all  evidences 
of  kindness,  generosity,  honesty,  truthfulness  or  other  desir- 
able traits,  for  the  double  purpose  of  inducing  the  repeti- 
tion of  the  same  act  on  future  occasions,  and,  by  the  law 
of  suggestion,  implanting  the  same  idea  in  the  minds  of 
other  pupils  who  may  be  more  or  less  lacking  in  the  trait 
commended. 

Caution.  The  teacher  must  be  careful  in  exercising  this 
law  of  suggestion.  Effective  commendation  requires  a  per- 
fectly natural  manner  and  tone  and  must  never  seem  to 
have  any  motive  beyond  what  appears  on  the  surface.  If 
the  teacher  "point  the  moral"  of  her  commendation  of  one 
pupil  by  so  much  as  a  significant  look  at  another  who  is 
an  offender,  she  may  antagonize  the  very  one  she  wishes 
to  help. 

Whenever  possible,  it  is  most  highly  important  that 
bad  habits  should  be  permitted  to  die  out  of  the  conscious- 
ness of  a  child  by  taking  no  public  notice  of  them  and  by 
guarding  against  occasions  for  their  reappearance  until  time 
blots  them  from  memory.  For  instance,  as  Raub  wisely 
says,  "Much  of  the  stubbornness  in  children  results  from 
the  hastiness  of  the  teacher  who  antagonizes  by  command- 
ing. Courtesy  is  needed  more  than  the  command.  The 
child  needs  encouragement,  not  censure,  to  make  him  do 
better." 

"  Bad  habits,"  says  Fielding,  "  are  as  infectious  by  example 
as  the  plague  itself  by  contact."  It  is  important,  therefore, 
that  very  young  and  very  susceptible  children  be  kept  from 
associating  intimately  with  those  who  are  known  to  be 
untruthful,  dishonest  or  possessed  of  some  other  evil  habit. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  ones  thus  afflicted  need  to  be  kept 
much  with  the  teacher  and  treated  with  the  utmost  kind- 


Discipline  7 

ness,  with  no  betrayal  of  distrust.  Until  the  fault  is  cured, 
devise  constant  ways  for  calling  its  opposite  virtue  into 
activity,  commend  its  appearance  and  do  everything  possible 
to  strengthen  it.  Let  this  child's  playmates  be  chosen  from 
the  older  and  morally  stronger  of  the  pupils  who  will  not 
be  tainted  by  contact.  Thus,  with  time  and  patience,  the 
evil  habit  will  be  eradicated  because  its  opposite  good  has 
grown  up  in  its  place.  May  not  right  doing  be  made  so 
attractive  as  to  become  infectious  by  example? 

Dryden  once  rather  sententiously  remarked,  "We  first 
make  our  habits,  then  our  habits  make  us,"  which  may  be 
interpreted  to  mean  that  character  itself  is  really  but  the 
aggregation  of  our  daily  habits  of  thought,  speech  and  action. 

Caution.  In  order  to  secure  the  great  patience,  self- 
restraint  and  sympathy  needed  when  trying  to  lead  a  pupil 
to  overcome  a  bad  habit,  try  to  break  yourself  of  any  fixed 
habit.  If  difficult  for  you,  a  mature  person,  what  must 
the  struggle  be  for  weak,  immature  wills  with  no  fixed  prin- 
ciples of  life  to  help  and  guide?  Bear  in  mind  that  self- 
restraint  and  patience  become  habitual  if  persistently 
exercised. 

6.  Order  and  Disorder.  There  is  probably  no  one  thing 
that  so  quickly  makes  or  unmakes  a  teacher's  reputation 
as  the  reports  in  regard  to  the  order  in  her  schoolroom. 
Every  casual  visitor,  official  or  non-official,  feels  fully  able 
to  pronounce  upon  this  point.  Even  the  youngest  pupil 
sits  in  judgment  upon  the  teacher's  administration  and 
carries  home  highly  colored  accounts  which  have  undue 
weight  in  determining  her  status  in  the  community.  Finally, 
she  is  tersely  pronounced  "no  good"  or  "all  right,"  accord- 
ing to  the  evidence  that  has  determined  public  opinion. 

What  good  order  and  good  discipline  are,  we  have  already 
endeavored  to  show  by  examples. 

What,  then,  is  disorder?  One  teacher's  definition  would 
be  whispering;  another's,  restless  children;  another's,  chil- 
dren who  talk  too  much;  another's,  untidy  or  uncleanly  pupils. 
Leaving   seats,    asking   to   leave   the   room,    chronic   thirst, 


8  Public  School  Methods 

coughing,  scattering  papers,  dropping  pencils,  slates,  books, 
fretting  and  crying  over  lessons,  annoying  neighbors,  scuffling 
of  feet,  truancy,  tardiness,  frequent  absences — there  is  no 
end  to  the  petty  trials  which  singly  or  in  the  aggregate  we 
classify  as  disorder,  and  when  these  conditions  become 
chronic  in  a  school  we  say  of  the  teacher,  "She  has  no 
discipline,"  or  "She  has  a  very  disorderly  school." 

A  facetious  individual  of  a  philosophic  turn  of  mind 
once  defined  dirt  as  misplaced  matter.  In  the  same  way  we 
might  with  propriety  define  disorder  as  misplaced  activity. 

It  seems  to  us  that  it  would  be  well  if  all  teachers  would 
take  the  attitude  of  a  skilful,  philosophic  physician.  When 
one  of  these  disorderly  tendencies  appears  in  concrete  form 
in  a  child  or  group  of  children,  the  first  thing  is  to  con- 
sider it  as  a  symptom  of  some  hidden  disorder  for  which 
there  must  be  either  a  mental  or  a  physical  cause.  The 
next  step  is  to  study  the  case  until  the  cause  is  located. 
The  third  step  is  to  remove  the  cause,  and  the  fourth,  and 
last,  is  to  change  conditions  so  as  to  prevent  the  cause  from 
leading  the  child  again  into  error. 

Caution.  The  immediate  need  may  and  probably  will 
require  immediate  action  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  to 
restore  temporary  equilibrium  pending  a  full  study  of  the 
case,  just  as  a  skilled  physician  makes  his  patient  "com- 
fortable" while  seeking  for  the  real  cause  of  trouble  and 
deciding  upon  the  proper  remedy  for  the  same. 

6.  Whispering.  Whispering  is  not  wrong  of  itself,  but 
if  freely  indulged  in  during  school  hours  it  becomes  a 
nuisance,  because  it  wastes  the  time  of  the  offenders  and 
disturbs  other  pupils  who  wish  to  study  or  recite  in  quiet. 
There  are  various  partial  remedies  for  this  trouble,  (i) 
Quietly  get  the  attention  of  the  children  and  explain  the 
situation  clearly  to  them.  Let  them  know  why  you  object 
to  whispering.  Their  own  good  sense  shows  them  the  truth 
of  what  you  put  before  them,  and,  if  you  have  their  affec- 
tion and  confidence,  they  will  try  hard  to  help  you  and 
the  school.      (2)  After  your  appeal,  should  there  be  willful 


Discipline  9 

persistence,  separate  the  offenders  by  changing  their  seats 
so  they  may  not  tempt  one  another.  (3)  Sometimes  give 
a  whispering  recess  of  two,  three,  four  or  five  minutes  as  a 
reward  for  previous  self-restraint,  because  of  which  you 
have  finished  the  recitation  a  little  ahead  of  time.  (4)  Give 
a  minute  between  recitations  for  pupils  to  ask  necessary 
questions  of  you  or  of  their  neighbors.  This  will  prevent 
disturbing  recitations  by  questions,  whispered  or  otherwise, 
when  your  time  and  attention  belong  wholly  to  the  class. 
(5)  Allow  pupils  to  whisper,  very  quietly,  enough  to  ask 
for  really  necessary  things,  or  to  say  "Thank  you"  for  a 
courtesy  rendered. 

Cautions.  (1)  If  these  privileges  are  persistently  abused, 
as  they  sometimes  are,  take  away  the  privilege,  saying 
quietly,  and  without  show  of  irritation,  "  I  am  very  sorry 
that  I  cannot  let  Carl  have  the  privilege  any  longer.  He 
does  not  seem  to  care  to  help  us  by  not  disturbing  the 
school."  After  a  day  or  two  of  deprivation,  should  Carl 
plead  for  forgiveness,  get  his  promise  to  "remember  not 
to  abuse  the  privilege,"  and  restore  him  to  favor.  If  the 
second  trial  proves  futile  and  he  willfully  violates  faith, 
take  away  the  privilege  for  a  much  longer  time,  until  Carl 
learns  that  good  faith  and  helpfulness  win  legitimate  priv- 
ileges as  surely  as  broken  faith  deprives  him  of  them; 
that  doing  right  brings  him  happiness  and  sunny  condi- 
tions. 

(2)  Do  not  call  upon  the  pupils  to  report  whispering  of 
themselves  or  others. 

(3)  Remember  that  what  seems  willful  disobedience  may 
easily  be  the  result  of  forgetfulness  or  due  to  a  habit. 

(4)  Deal  in  a  similar  manner  with  those  other  special 
privileges  of  the  schoolroom,  leaving  the  room,  leaving 
seats,  talking,  etc.  It  is  well  to  arrange  a  quiet  signal  code, 
like  the  raising  of  one  finger,  two  fingers,  etc.,  between  the 
pupils  and  yourself,  by  which  the  want  may  be  indicated 
and  the  privilege  granted  without  the  interruption  caused 
by  spoken  words. 


10  Public  School  Methods 

(5)  Keep  track  of  those  to  whom  the  special  privilege  is 
given,  and  never  allow  violations  to  become  chronic.  Have 
it  understood  that  no  child  may  leave  the  room  when  one 
is  already  out;  also,  that  each  child  must  return  to  the 
room  in  the  shortest  time  possible.  These  precautions  are 
vital,  because  laxity  in  these  directions  sometimes  results 
in  evils  very  difficult  to  eradicate  or  even  to  trace.  For 
instance,  the  privilege  of  leaving  the  room  is  based  upon 
a  supposed  necessity,  but  it  is  possible  to  use  the  oppor- 
tunity to  rifle  pocketbooks,  lunch-baskets,  or  to  do  other 
reprehensible  things  to  which  those  of  peculiarly  weak  wills 
are  liable. 

7.  Thieving.  Thieving  is  a  grievous  but  not  uncommon 
fault  among  children,  especially  before  they  are  old  enough 
to  understand  the  gravity  of  the  offense.  When  a  case 
of  theft  is  discovered,  it  seems  best  to  keep  the  matter  from 
the  other  pupils,  to  have  an  early  conference  with  the 
parents  for  the  purpose  of  learning  whether  this  is  a  newly 
developed  fault  or  one  of  long  standing,  and  then  privately 
to  talk  with  the  offender  about  the  wrong  done. 

If  the  child  belongs  to  a  well-to-do  family  and  has  con- 
siderate treatment  at  home,  then,  about  all  that  can  be 
done  is  to  secure  the  cooperation  of  the  parents  in  remov- 
ing temptations,  in  arousing  the  moral  sense  into  activity, 
and  in  being  determinedly  alert  to  notice  and  commend 
efforts  at  right  doing.  Best  of  all  is  it  to  lead  the  offender 
to  see  for  himself  how  much  happier  he  is  when  the  fear 
of  discovery  is  entirely  removed  and  to  taste  the  full  sweet- 
ness of  being  trusted  by  teacher  and  friends. 

On  the  other  hand,  when  such  an  offender  proves  to  be 
physically  ill-conditioned  because  of  lack  of  proper  quality 
and  quantity  of  food,  shelter  and  clothing,  or  to  have  been 
made  nervous,  fearful  and  cowardly  by  reason  of  harsh, 
unkind  'treatment  and  frequent  beatings,  the  case  is  entirely 
different  in  its  nature  and  the  treatment  must  be  different. 
Knowing  the  cause  of  the  trouble,  the  obvious  law  is  to 
supply  the  child  regularly  with  proper  bodily  comforts  or 


Discipline  11 

with  the  love  and  sympathy  for  which  his  small  soul  may 
be  starving.  These  will  remove  his  temptations  and  make 
him  worthy  of  trust  and  confidence. 

8.  Tardiness  and  Absence.  Children  who  are  thoroughly 
interested  in  their  school  and  who  love  and  trust  their  teacher 
will  never  play  truant  nor  of  their  own  accord  be  either 
absent  or  tardy.  The  inference  is  obvious.  However,  both 
absence  and  tardiness  sometimes  occur  even  among  such 
pupils.  There  may  be  illness  at  home;  the  clock  may  be 
wrong,  or  the  weather  too  cold  or  inclement  for  their  scanty 
clothing.  Every  case  of  absence  or  tardiness  should  be 
investigated  in  order  to  find  out  what  caused  it,  and  then 
no  word  of  blame  should  be  spoken  for  that  which  is 
unavoidable. 

An  ambitious  teacher  desiring  to  make  a  record  for 
punctuality  sometimes  creates  such  a  sentiment  on  the 
subject  that  children  come  to  school  under  circumstances 
that  no  just  outsider  could  commend.  Sometimes  this 
enthusiastic  desire  for  local  supremacy  in  promptness  and 
regularity  spreads  itself  all  over  a  county,  and  we  have 
seen  this  sentiment  so  strong  in  one  state  that  the  universal 
motto  appeared  to  be,  "  Better  not  to  come  to  school  at 
all  than  to  come  late." 

Such  an  instance  is  a  fine  example  of  how  popular 
opinion  may  be  so  won  over  to  the  side  of  the  teachers  and 
superintendents  that  what  was  meant  as  an  unmixed  good 
operates  as  a  grave  injustice  to  many  little  children. 

The  skilful  teacher  will  discover  numerous  devices  which 
assist  in  securing  promptness;  among  these  are  reading  or 
telling  an  interesting  story  at  the  beginning  of  the  session, 
teaching  new  games  to  those  who  reach  the  school  building 
fifteen  minutes  before  school  calls,  and  hinting  at  some- 
thing that  may  be  done  at  this  time,  but  keeping  the 
nature  of  the  work  a  secret,  so  that  only  those  who  come 
early  may  know  what  it  is.  The  teacher  who  can  keep 
her  pupils  interested  will  have  few  unnecessary  cases  of 
tardiness. 


12  Public  School  Methods 

9.  Restlessness.  Restless  children,  those  who  drop 
pencils,  scuffle  feet,  annoy  their  neighbors  and  do  other 
trying  things — what  is  to  be  done  with  them?  Study  every 
nervous  child.  Nine  times  out  of  ten  its  physical  condi- 
tions are  wrong  and  cause  the  restlessness.  Desk  and  seat 
are  poorly  adjusted,  the  air  is  heavy  or  over-heated,  the 
light  is  bad,  eyesight  or  hearing  is  deficient,  illness  is  com- 
ing on — any  one  of  a  hundred  different  things  may  be  the 
cause  of  the  nervous  state  that  is  producing  trouble  for 
yourself  and  others.  When  the  restlessness  is  general,  venti- 
late the  room,  give  a  brisk  drill  in  light  calisthenics,  send 
the  children  in  a  quiet  but  brisk  scamper  up  and  down  the 
aisles  and  around  the  room,  or  let  all  the  children  join  in  a 
lively  motion  song.  Any  of  these  is  a  legitimate  outlet  for 
the  pent-up  nervousness,  and  the  change  of  air  and  absorb- 
ing activity  will  set  the  blood  into  normal  circulation  and 
change  the  thought  into  a  healthy,  joyous  channel,  effectually 
banishing  the  restlessness  and  half-developed  mutiny  of  the 
moment  before. 

Suppose  it  is  only  one  who  is  restless.  If  you  decide 
that  he  is  restless  because  he,  alone,  needs  exercise  in  the 
open  air,  call  him  to  you,  quietly  send  him  forth  with  the 
suggestion,  "Run  around  the  schoolhouse  three  times  as 
fast  as  you  can  go,  and  then  come  in."  None  but  you  and 
he  know  on  what  errand  he  has  been  sent.  None  but  you 
and  he  know  what  his  smile  and  nod  mean  on  his  return. 
But  all  can  see  that  he  now  settles  happily  down  to  work. 
Or  it  may  be  that  he  has  accomplished  all  the  work  assigned 
and  is  merely  restless  and  annoying  because  he  is  idle.  In 
that  case,  find  pleasant,  legitimate  occupation  for  him. 
See  Volume  Two,  Chapter  Two,  Construction  Work. 

For  the  younger  pupils,  a  little  more  work  like  that 
already  assigned  may  be  given  to  fill  out  the  time,  or  the 
sand  table  or  blackboard  may  be  brought  into  use.  In 
case  there  is  need  to  supply  older  pupils  with  extra  work 
to  fill  the  time,  the  teacher  may  provide  from  the  library 
or  other  sources,  books  and  magazines  relating  to  the  work 


Discipline  13 

of  the  week.  If  references  to  these  are  written  on  the  black- 
board near  the  table  where  the  books  are  kept,  the  pupil 
can  find  the  articles  and  interest  himself  in  their  contents. 

10.  Obedience.  "  'There  are  two  kinds  of  people,'  said 
the  teacher,  after  all  were  seated,  'those  that  command, 
those  that  obey.  No  man  is  fit  to  command  until  he  has 
learned  to  obey— he  will  not  know  how.  .  .  .  There  are 
laws  everywhere — we  couldn't  live  without  them— laws  of 
nature,  God,  and  man.  Until  we  learn  the  law  and  how 
to  obey  it,  we  must  go  carefully  and  take  the  advice  of 
older  heads.  We  couldn't  run  a  school  without  laws  in  it- 
laws  that  I  must  obey  as  well  as  you.  I  must  teach,  and 
you  must  learn.  The  first  two  laws  of  the  school  are  teach 
and  learn — you  must  help  me  to  obey  mine;  I  must  help 
you  to  obey  yours.  And  we'll  have  as  much  fun  as  possible; 
but  we  must  obey.'  "' 

Obedience,  or  rather  what  passes  for  obedience,  seems 
to  be  of  many  kinds,  owing  to  differing  standards,  chiefly, 
but  sometimes  to  differing  conditions.  There  are  many 
teachers  and  even  more  parents  who  appear  to  think  that 
obedience  has  been  secured  when  compliance  has  been 
rendered  even  at  the  cost  of  a  great  waste  of  time  and  a 
great  clash  of  wills. 

Obviously  such  compliance  is  but  makeshift  and  not 
more  than  half-hearted  obedience,  at  best.  The  obedience 
really  worth  the  name  is  the  unhesitating,  prompt  and  will- 
ing compliance  with  a  request  or  command.  Let  us  hope 
that  in  the  schoolroom  and  in  the  home  the  day  may  not 
be  far  distant  when  the  necessary  command  will  always 
bear  the  form  of  a  request,  given  in  a  pleasant  tone  that 
implies  instant  obedience  and  yet  in  a  manner  that  leaves 
nothing  of  true  courtesy  to  be  desired.  This  is  the  ideal 
towards  which  all  people  of  refinement  and  culture  are 
working. 

11.  Rules  or  Laws.  Obedience,  from  its  very  nature, 
implies   something  to  obey,  and  that  something  we  call  a 

1  Irving  Bacheller:     Darrell  of  the  Blessed  Isles. 


14  Public  School  Methods 

law,  a  rule  or  a  regulation.  Every  school  must  have  definite 
laws  as  standards  of  conduct  for  teacher  and  pupils.  These 
laws  may  be  written  or  unwritten.  In  some  of  the  best 
schools  we  have  seen,  the  pupils,  if  questioned,  might  not 
have  been  able  to  quote  a  single  law  of  the  school.  There 
was,  however,  a  sense  of  law  pervading  these  schools  and 
the  pupils  were  giving  tacit,  almost  unconscious  obedience 
to  teachers  who  knew  how  to  suggest  doing  or  not  doing,  in  a 
manner  to  win  easy  compliance. 

(a)  Characteristics  of  School  Laws.  School  laws,  to 
be  valuable,  must  be  (i)  few  in  number;  (2)  clearly  under- 
stood; (3)  perfectly  just  and  reasonable;  (4)  general  in  char- 
acter, to  protect  the  entire  school;  (5)  executed  promptly, 
impartially,  serenely. 

The  best  laws  always  grow  out  of  needs  that  are  general 
and  easily  apparent  to  all.  Children  instinctively  prefer 
order  to  disorder,  demand  fair  play,  and  give  greater  respect 
to  a  teacher  who  wisely  enforces  obedience  at  the  proper 
time  than  to  one  who  weakly  yields  to  caprice,  whims,  teasing 
or  tears  on  the  part  of  the  pupils. 

(b)  Enforcement  of  Rules.  A  teacher  needs  to  be 
careful  about  saying  no,  but  when  she  decides  that  she  must 
say  it,  the  no  should  not  be  changed  to  yes.  When  privileges 
are  asked,  grant  them  if  you  can  consistently  do  so.  Nothing 
is  ever  really  gained  by  playing  the  role  of  the  petty  tyrant. 
Such  a  course  invariably  produces  antagonism,  personal  dis- 
like, and  frequently  the  result  is  avowed  hostility  and  open 
rebellion. 

When  there  is  any  doubt  about  the  desirability  of  grant- 
ing the  request,  beware  of  answering  hastily.  It  is  hard  to 
retreat  gracefully  when  once  committed  to  any  course. 
Better  say,  "  Wait  a  little.  I  must  think  that  over  before  I 
can  answer."  This,  said  pleasantly,  but  decidedly,  satisfies 
the  children  and  shuts  off  teasing.  However,  the  teacher 
should  keep  in  mind  that  little  people  cannot  long  bear  sus- 
pense with  patience,  and  therefore  her  answer  ought  to  be 
given  as  soon  as  possible.     If  obliged  to  say  no,  the  sharp 


Discipline  15 

edge  of  disappointment  may  be  taken  off  by  prefacing  the 
refusal  with  a  kindly  remark:  "I  am  sorry  to  disappoint 
you,  but  I  have  thought  it  all  over  and  I  am  obliged  to  say 
no,  when  I  should  really  like  to  say  yes  if  I  could."  This 
will  be  all  that  is  necessary  when  mutual  confidence  and  trust 
are  thoroughly  established.  The  children  will  bear  the  dis- 
appointment bravely  because  of  their  love  and  respect  for 
the  teacher. 

As  soon  as  convenient  afterward,  plan  some  little  pleasant 
surprise  for  the  pupils  and  preface  the  announcement  with 
"You  bore  your  disappointment  so  bravely  that  I  am  glad 
to  tell  you,  etc.,  etc."  This  is  one  way  of  proving  to  the 
school  that  you  are  glad  to  grant  favors  when  the  good  of 
the  school  permits  it.  It  also  serves  as  an  encouragement  to 
future  bravery  under  trial,  and  helps  materially  to  establish 
the  habit  of  cheerful  obedience. 

(c)  Preventing  Disorder.  After  all  is  said  and  done, 
it  is  the  law  of  prevention  that  is  most  needed  in  a  primary 
school.  The  teacher  with  skill  in  reading  symptoms  knows 
almost  sooner  than  the  pupil  when  mischief  is  about  to  occur. 
Sympathy  and  tact  save  the  situation  by  a  helpful  look,  a 
little  admonitory  shake  of  the  head,  a  single  cautious  word 
spoken  at  the  right  moment  and  in  the  right  manner.  "A 
word  fitly  spoken  is  like  apples  of  gold  in  pictures  of  silver" — 
but  the  word  must  be  fitly  spoken! 

Cultivate  the  intuition,  to  be  able  to  see  the  beginnings 
of  things.  Cultivate  sympathy,  to  be  able  to  see  from  the 
child's  point  of  view.  Cultivate  tact,  to  be  able  to  render 
the  help  or  correction  needed  in  the  least  obtrusive  and  least 
offensive  way  possible.  Show  children  the  need  of  running 
away  from  temptation,  and  lead  them  in  the  right  way. 
Children  are  seldom  malicious  in  their  mischief.  Children 
seldom  cherish  grudges  to  the  point  of  seeking  revenge. 
They  resent  insult  in  word  and  manner,  tone  or  look,  but  they 
even  bear  punishment  without  resentment  when  they  see  its 
justice.  Frequently,  when  the  case  is  explained  and  they  are 
made  the  judge,  their  sense  of  justice  compels  them  to  impose 


16  Public  School  Methods 

a  more   severe  penalty  upon  themselves  than  the  teacher 
would. 

12.  Need  of  More  Sympathy.  Oppressed  by  many  cares 
which  rest  heavily  upon  their  unaccustomed  shoulders,  there 
are  many  teachers  who  fail  in  sympathy,  forgetting  their 
own  childish  heartaches  and  longings  to  be  understood  by 
the  grown-up  people  of  their  acquaintance.  And  from  the 
lack  of  sympathy  such  teachers  fail  to  reach  the  hearts  of 
their  pupils,  and  hence  gain  no  real  power  over  them.  Uncon- 
scious of  their  own  failing,  they  wonder  why  their  efforts 
are  futile — but  continue  their  mistaken  course. 

Very  few  teachers  are  really  devoid  of  sympathy  for  the 
obvious  trials  and  griefs  of  a  child's  life.  It  is  the  little  things, 
too  small  to  be  mentioned  by  name,  wherein  they  are  most 
apt  to  fail.  Children  are  often  repressed  and  restrained  when 
they  need  but  expression  and  direction.  They  are  corrected 
when  they  do  wrong,  but  not  commended  when  they  do  right. 

In  a  primary  school,  especially,  such  comical  things  are 
said  and  done  every  day  and  with  such  perfect  unconsciousness 
as  to  be  droll  in  the  extreme.  The  teacher  experiences  an 
internal  convulsion  of  mirth,  but  dares  not  laugh,  lest  the 
child's  feelings  be  hurt.  Sympathy  she  must  have.  She 
looks  up  and  finds  a  pair  of  bright  eyes  just  dancing  with 
appreciation  of  the  fun  that  no  others  but  himself  and  the 
teacher  have  noted.  A  single  flash  of  delighted  understand- 
ing passes  from  his  soul  to  the  teacher's  soul.  The  work  in 
school  goes  on.  No  one  else  has  noticed  anything  unusual, 
but  a  bond  of  friendship  has  been  created. 

Nor  is  this  mental  telegraphy  for  fun  alone.  It  acts  as 
spontaneously  when  some  unexpected  instance  of  pathos 
occurs.  The  case  may  not  admit  of  words,  but  a  flash  of 
pity  is  exchanged.  Again,  a  beautiful  thought,  a  gracious 
phrase,  a  bit  of  exquisite  color,  or  what  you  will,  calls  forth 
pleasure  that  needs  to  be  shared  and  brings  a  flash  of  appre- 
ciative understanding. 

13.  Maxims  and  Proverbs.  The  timely  utterance  of  some 
appropriate  bit  of  prose  or  verse  is  more  helpful  to  a  child 


Discipline  17 

than  more  decided  forms  of  reproof.  One  is  a  reminder, 
the  other  a  corrective.  Suppose  you  find  two  pupils  quarrel- 
ing, on  the  verge  of  a  hand-to-hand  fight,  even;  a  hand  laid 
gently  on  the  arm  of  each  combatant  and  a  softly  uttered 
"  Blessed  are  the  peacemakers,  for  they  shall  be  called  the 
children  of  God,"  will,  in  our  opinion,  go  farther  towards 
bringing  little  children  to  a  feeling  of  shame  and  contrition 
than  any  number  of  verbal  explosives  would  do. 

Proverbs,  maxims  and  appropriate  lines  of  verse  are  also 
most  efficient  as  helpful  reminders  to  children  when  they 
linger  over  the  doing  of  some  duty  not  quite  to  their  liking. 
For  example,  a  general  request  has  been  given,  something 
for  the  entire  class  or  the  school  to  do,  and  there  is  a  good 
deal  of  delay  in  the  response.  We  have  often  seen  all  hesita- 
tion banished  and  cheery,  prompt  obedience  result  from  the 
teacher  smilingly  quoting  from  Phoebe  Cary: 

"If  you're  told  to  do  a  thing, 
And  mean  to  do  it,  really, 
Never  let  it  be  by  halves, 
Do  it  fully,  freely." 

Again,  there  may  be  some  shrugging  of  shoulders  and  even 
some  pouting  over  a  task.     Try 

"  Tis  working  with  the  heart  and  soul, 
That  makes  our  duty  pleasure." 

Another  time  a  child  becomes  discouraged  over  a  piece  of 
work  that  "goes  all  wrong"  in  spite  of  his  best  efforts.  Per- 
haps the  teacher  sees  that  the  efforts  have  become  too  impa- 
tient and  that  the  child  has  reached  the  verge  of  tears.  Cour- 
age and  equilibrium  are  restored  by  a  whispered 
"All  that's  great  and  good  is  done 
Just  by  patient  trying." 

14.  Happiness  as  a  Factor  in  Discipline.  Happiness  is  a 
most  potent  factor  in  school  discipline,  and  in  a  primary 
school  it  is  probably  the  teacher's  most  helpful  aid.  It 
takes  but  a  little  to  make  a  child  happy  for  a  short  time. 
But  to  keep  him  habitually  happy  and  contented,  so  that 
obedience  becomes  easy  and  a  matter  of  course,  requires  a 


18  Public  School  Methods 

deep,  far-reaching  knowledge  of  child-nature,  a  profound 
sympathy,  genuine  affection,  boundless  patience,  firmness, 
gentleness,  great  tajt,  keen  intuitions,  cheerfulness  and  a 
large  stock  of  good  common  sense. 

All  the  qualities  that  make  the  best  mother  are  needed 
to  make  the  best  primary  teacher — plus  training  and  love  of 
teaching. 

To  secure  the  best  working  atmosphere  for  the  school 
does  not  need  a  costly  building  or  expensive  equipments. 
But  it  does  need  cleanliness,  tidiness,  a  cordial,  friendly 
spirit,  harmony  of  action,  and  the  bodily  comfort  of  the 
children.  Give  the  children  a  happy  atmosphere  to  work  in, 
an  interesting,  sympathetic  teacher,  plenty  of  suitable  work 
and  recreation,  and  the  word  discipline  will  cease  to  be  a 
source  of  anxiety  and  torment.  See  Games  and  Plays,  pages 
175-187,  Sections  14-25. 

15.  Causes  of  Disord3r.  Among  the  numerous  causes  of 
disorder  in  the  schoolroom,  the  following  underlie  them  all: 

(a)  The  Teacher.  It  will  be  difficult  for  any  teacher  to 
believe  that  in  herself  may  lie  some,  if  not  all,  of  the  most 
potent  causes  of  disorder,  but  to  the  unprejudiced  observer 
this  fact  has  long  been  evident.  One  teacher  is  wholly  un- 
trained for  her  work  and  knows  not  what  to  do  in  order  to 
prepare  for  it;  hence,  there  is  a  very  faulty  school  organization 
and  no  program  at  all,  or  but  a  poor  one  made  without  regard 
to  the  rules  of  pedagogy  or  psychology.  Another  has  had 
training  and  has  a  well-prepared  program,  but  by  nature  and 
habit  is  careless.  Hence,  her  program  is  of  little  use,  and 
her  hair,  dress,  desks,  tables  and  floor  are  in  a  state  of  dis- 
order that  has  become  chronic.  A  third  teacher  is  orderly 
and  punctual,  but  has  a  nervous,  impatient  nature  that  shows 
itself  in  a  rasping  voice,  lack  of  poise,  serenity  and  self-control. 
She  strikes  the  bell  sharply  and  every  nerve  and  muscle  is 
tense. 

Another  teacher  presents  a  sharp  contrast  to  the  last — 
perhaps  to  all  three  before  named.  Her  health  is  superb, 
she  knows  nothing  of  "nerves"  in  herself  and  never  provides 


Discipline  19 

against  them  in  others.  But  her  voice  is  loud,  her  move- 
ments bustling,  all  her  signals  noisy.  She  goes  through  the 
schoolroom  like  a  human  storm.  She  needs  a  great  deal  of 
fresh  air  and  is  reckless  of  drafts.  Her  failure  is  lack  of 
refinement  and  lack  of  sympathy  for  bodily  ills  and  inherited 
weaknesses.  Her  pupils  "will  gain  little  of  culture  from  her 
example.  On  the  other  hand,  she  is  more  wholesome  to 
them  than  the  "  nervous' '  teacher  who  frets,  scolds  and  con- 
stantly irritates. 

We  might  go  on  picturing  types  of  teachers  who  uncon- 
sciously cause  disorder  and  then  wonder  why  it  exists  and 
why  their  children  are  "  so  much  harder  to  govern  than  those 
in  the  adjoining  room,  where  the  teacher  has  not  had  half 
as  many  years  of  experience."  It  is  pleasanter  and  more 
effective  to  note  the  sunny  face,  the  sweet  voice,  the  tidy 
person,  the  quiet,  serene  manner,  the  air  of  motherly  sym- 
pathy and  the  evidences  of  skill  in  organizing  and  teaching  so 
clearly  manifest  in  the  next  room,  and  the  effect  of  all  these 
so  plainly  stamped  upon  her  pupils. 

We  need  not  draw  the  moral.  Suffice  it  for  our  individual 
encouragement  that  every  effort  we  make  for  the  sake  of 
our  pupils,  every  grace  of  mind  or  body  that  we  cultivate, 
not  only  gives  us  additional  power  and  success  in  the  school- 
room, but  each  of  these  becomes  a  permanent  personal  pos- 
session, opening  up  a  world  of  happiness  never  possessed, 
and  scarcely  dreamed  of,  before.  It  is  essentially  the  verifi- 
cation of  the  old  command:  "But  seek  ye  first  the  kingdom 
of  God  and  his  righteousness,  and  all  these  things  shall  be 
added  unto  you." 

(b)  Physical  Condition  of  the  Pupil.  Bodily  comfort 
is  one  of  the  chief  factors  in  good  conduct.  An  inexperienced 
teacher  may  not  give  this  matter  sufficient  consideration, 
and  because  of  such  oversight  have  a  disorderly  school. 
Concerning  this,  one  of  our  foremost  educational  writers  says: 

The  power  of  children  to  commit  or  retain  lessons  and  the  power 
to  repress  anger  and  other  nervous  outbreaks  are  weakened  by 
fatigue  of  body.     Both  are  more  vigorous  in  the  morning  than  at 


20  Public  School  Methods 

night.  Fatigue,  too,  often  produces  a  melancholy  or  depressed  feel- 
ing. A  hungry  man  is  harder  to  control  than  a  well-fed  one.  Untruth- 
fulness frequently  proceeds  from  a  want  of  courage  to  face  conse- 
quences, and  lack  of  courage  is  frequently  due  to  ill-nourished  nerves. 
A  lack  of  quality  as  well  as  quantity  of  food  produces,  as  observa- 
tion shows,  irritability,  ugliness  and  viciousness.  Overwork,  worry, 
teasing  of  children,  help  form,  or  rather  deform,  character.1 

(c)  Foul  Air.  Defective  ventilation  is  one  of  the  most 
prolific  sources  of  disorder.  This  will  be  fully  explained 
in  Chapter  Twenty,  Section  3  (c). 

16.  Silent  Influences.  The  children  of  the  primary  grades 
are  in  the  absorbent  stage,  easily  and  deeply  impressed  by 
their  surroundings.  Curiosity  is  perpetually  alert,  imagi- 
nation highly  active,  imitation  excessive.  At  the  same  time 
the  will-power  is  weak,  reasoning  undeveloped,  self-control 
unknown  or  exceedingly  unstable.  In  these  children, 
then,  all  powers  and  possibilities  are  in  the  plastic  con- 
dition. 

Their  physical,  mental  and  spiritual  growth  is  greater 
during  these  years  than  at  any  later  period,  and  their  whole 
nature  is  more  sensitive  to  influences  than  ever  again.  For 
all  these  reasons,  it  is  of  vital  importance  that  children  be 
surrounded  by  what  will  awaken  and  strengthen  pleasant 
emotions,  noble  thoughts,  kindly  affections,  fine  ideals. 
They  should  live  in  an  atmosphere  of  sympathy,  serenity, 
and  harmony.  Growth  is  making  great  drafts  upon  their 
nervous  strength,  and  their  environment  should  not  add  to 
this  dissipation  of  force  through  friction,  over-fatigue  or  the 
unconscious  irritation  that  comes  from  uncleanliness,  un- 
sightly objects,  a  bad  picture,  vulgar  or  profane  speech  or 
antagonistic  companions.  During  these  years  they  need  a 
teacher  who,  without  over-indulgence  or  pampering,  calms 
and  soothes;  who  stimulates  their  efforts  by  judicious  praise; 
who  sympathizes  with  their  failures,  but  sets  them  again  at 
their  tasks  with  a  word  of  direction  and  encouragement;  who 
is  kind  under  all  circumstances;  who  knows  by  intuition  and 
study  how  to  arrange  colors,  adjust  lights,  make  herself  a 

'Dr.  M.  V.  O'Shea. 


Discipline  21 

pleasant  object  to  look  upon  and  her  voice  a  pleasant  sound 
to  hear. 

In  these  years,  also,  there  should  be  for  the  child  many 
lessons  of  beauty,  usefulness,  patience  and  strength  drawn 
from  the  great  world  of  out-of-doors.  The  time  will  come 
in  his  life  when  he  must  learn  to  meet  and  overcome  many 
jarring,  disagreeable  obstacles.  But  he  should  learn  this 
lesson  gradually  and  his  first  years  be  so  strongly  impressed 
with  the  beauty  and  sweetness  of  life  in  its  best  forms  that, 
later,  he  will  never  be  tempted  to  choose  what  is  gross,  low 
or  degrading. 

17.  Punishment  for  Primary  Grades.  The  word  discipline 
should  not  be  made  synonymous  with  punishment,  nor 
punishment  with  whipping.  Discipline  is  a  generic  term, 
including  many  phases  of  school  adjustment.  Punishment 
includes  whipping,  but  recognizes  it  as  the  lowest  member  of 
its  disciplinary  family,  one  not  now  in  good  repute  for  any 
school,  and  least  of  all  for  the  primary  school. 

It  is  our  belief  that  if  teachers  will  become  thoroughly 
efficient  in  the  exercise  of  the  laws  of  prevention  and  sug- 
gestion, punishment,  even  in  its  most  limited  sense,  will  be 
almost  unnecessary  among  primary  children.  With  their 
susceptible  temperaments  and  keen  sensibilities,  they  crave 
affection,  trust,  approbation,  honorable  position  in  school. 
These  are  perfectly  natural,  legitimate  and  forcible  incentives 
to  right  conduct  and  rewards  for  well-doing,  and  should  be 
used  freely  until  the  child  has  gained  the  moral  strength  to 
do  right  for  its  own  sake. 

When  any  punishment  must  be  resorted  to,  it  should  be 
inflicted  solely  to  prevent  the  return  of  the  same  offense 
and  never  for  the  sake  of  "getting  even"  with  the  offender. 
It  should  be  natural  and  logically  related  to  the  nature  of 
the  offense.  For  example,  if  a  pupil  abuses  the  privileges 
of  the  playground  he  must  have  his  recess  alone  until  glad 
to  conform  to  the  established  rules.  The  punishment  must  be 
demonstrated  to  be  absolutely  just.  Punishment  must  be 
certain  and  given  in  private.     Fretting,  scolding,  shaking  or 


22  Public  School  Methods 

other  personal  indignities  are  worse  than  useless  and  only 
stir  up  anger  and  cause  loss  of  dignity  and  esteem.  The 
same  result  occurs  when  a  fault  is  punished  to-day  and 
passed  over  to-morrow. 

18.  Rewards  and  Prizes.  Rewards  for  effort  are  natural 
and  should  be  given  freely  enough  to  act  as  a  healthful  stim- 
ulant, but  not  so  freely  as  to  make  the  children  weakly 
dependent  upon  them.  Rewards  should  seldom  take  a 
material  form.  A  smile,  a  look  or  word  of  approval,  an  affec- 
tionate pat  upon  the  head  are  more  lasting  and  more  truly 
appreciated  than  actual  presents.  On  very  great  occasions 
a  note  of  approval,  or  a  report  of  his  record  in  class,  when 
that  is  the  result  of  real  effort,  may  be  sent  home  by  the 
pupil  to  his  parents.  Whatever  the  reward,  it  should  always 
come  as  the  outgrowth  of  honest  effort,  not  something  that 
is  offered  in  advance. 

Prizes,  at  best,  are  of  doubtful  benefit.  They  usually 
fall  to  the  one  who  has  the  greatest  natural  ability  and  not 
to  the  one  who  makes  the  greatest  effort.  They  arouse, 
oftentimes,  bitter  envy  and  jealousy,  and  are  apt  to  estrange 
the  closest  friends.  They  encourage  pupils  to  work  hardest 
for  material  returns,  rather  than  for  the  higher  but  less 
tangible  benefits.  On  the  whole,  the  laws  of  prize-giving  in 
school  "are  more  honored  in  the  breach  than  in  the  obser- 
vance." 

19.  Summary.  The  qualities  necessary  to  a  fine  disci- 
plinarian are  tact,  self-control,  sympathy,  charity  and  love; 
impartiality,  firmness,  courage,  cheerfulness,  perseverance, 
earnestness,  enthusiasm  and  equability;  tidiness,  and  a  cul- 
tured voice. 

Fortunately,  all  these  virtues  and  graces  may  be  developed 
by  persevering  effort,  even  when  nature  has  poorly  endowed 
us.  Add  to  these,  high  ideals,  right  physical  conditions, 
plenty  of  interesting  work  and  proper  attention  to  the  play- 
ground. Add,  also,  numerous  good  songs  chosen  for  inspiring 
sentiment,  beautiful  melody  and  nice  adaptation  to  seasons 
and  occasions. 


Discipline  23 

Avoid  friction,  move  along  the  lines  of  least  resistance, 
be  watchful  not  to  overtax  the  pupils,  and  intersperse  work 
with  play  so  as  to  prevent  undue  fatigue. 

"Be  patient  with  the  children's  faults  and  shortcomings. 
Remember  that  they  come  to  you  from  all  sorts  of  conditions 
and  surroundings,  and  that  they  are  now  what  these  environ- 
ments and  conditions  have  made  them.  Out  ot  the  abun- 
dance of  a  loving  and  sympathetic  heart,  teach  them,  lift 
them  up  and  help  them  to  be  what  you  would  have  them  be. 
Be  ready  with  'busy  work,'  and  keep  them  occupied.  A 
thousand  times  saying  'Be  quiet,'  'Don't  make  a  noise,' 
and  'What  are  you  doing,  Johnnie?'  is  of  no  avail." 

"  Energy  and  activity  must  be  spent.  Wisely  prepare  for 
it.  Watch  and  plan  and  work,  forgetting  all  else  but  these 
little  ones  in  your  charge,  and  success  is  sure  to  crown  your 
efforts.1"  See,  also,  Songs,  page  187,  Sections  26-33;  and 
Moral  Training,  Volume  Two,  page  248. 

20.  Books  for  Teachers.  Children's  Rights.  Kate  Douglas 
Wiggin.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

Gentle  Measures  for  the  Management  and  Training  of  the  Young. 
Jacob  Abbott.     Harper  &  Brothers. 

How  to  Keep  Order.     J.  L.  Hughes.     A.  Flanagan  Co. 

Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching.  David  Page.  American  Book 
Company. 

School  Management.     E.  E.  White.     American  Book  Company. 

Common  Sense  Didactics.     Henry  Sabin.     Rand.  McNally  &  Co. 

The  Point  of  Contact.     E.  P.  DuBois.     Dodd,  Mead  &  Co. 

Unconscious  Tuition.     Huntington.     E.  L.  Kellogg  &  Co. 

The  Evolution  of  Dodd.     W.  H.  Smith.     Book  Supply  Company. 

Emmy  Lou.     George  Madden  Martin.     McClure,  Phillips  &  Co. 

The  Hoosier  Schoolmaster.    E.  E.  Eggleston.    Bobbs,  Merrill  &  Co. 

Waymarks  for  Teachers.     S.  L.  Arnold.     Silver,  Burdett  &  Co. 

TEST  QUESTIONS 

1.  Explain  how  a  school  may  be  quiet  and  orderly  and 
yet  not  in  a  condition  of  good  discipline.  May  pupils  be 
altogether  obedient  and  still  be  gaining  nothing  from  their 
obedience  ?  ' 

1  Southwestern  School  Journal. 


24  Public  School  Methods 

2.  Among  those  things  considered  worthy  of  remem- 
brance by  the  inspector  who  visited  a  school  during  the 
absence  of  the  teacher,  what  seems  to  you  to  be  the  most 
important?  Can  you  say  that  the  pupils  were  under  the 
control  of  the  teacher  even  during  her  absence?  Do  you 
consider  it  advisable  for  a  teacher  frequently  to  leave  her 
school  to  its  own  devices?  What  legitimate  means  has  she 
of  knowing  the  conduct  of  a  school  during  her  absence? 

3.  Of  what  benefit  to  the  teacher  is  the  study  of  such  an 
address  as  that  delivered  by  Ex- President  Roosevelt?  Tabu- 
late the  chief  points  he  makes  in  the  quotation  in  this  lesson. 

4.  What  are  the  best  methods  to  use  in  breaking  up  a 
bad  habit  in  primary  children?  Do  you  think  that  good 
habits  are  harder  to  establish  than  bad  habits?  What  rea- 
sons can  you  give  for  your  answer?  Is  the  telling  of  false- 
hoods a  serious  fault  in  small  children?  Is  it  a  common 
fault?     How  would  you  proceed  to  break  up  this  habit. 

5.  Why  is  it  not  wise  to  call  upon  children  for  a  report 
of  their  whispering?  What  forms  of  disorder  in  school  are 
worse  than  whispering?  Formulate  a  rule  which  shall  tell 
when  whispering  is  a  detriment  to  the  school. 

6.  What  are  school  laws,  and  what  should  be  their  char- 
acteristics? How  may  maxims,  proverbs  and  other  forms 
of  memory  gems  be  used  to  aid  discipline?  Give  quotations 
not  found  in  this  lesson  which  could  be  used  to  strengthen 
obedience  in  primary  children. 

7.  What  is  meant  by  the  school  atmosphere?  How  may 
the  best  working  atmosphere  be  secured  for  school  children? 

8.  Name  ten  causes  of  disorder  for  which  teachers  them- 
selves are  to  blame.  Which  five  of  these  are  most  harmful 
to  children?  What  are  the  qualities  in  teachers  most  helpful 
to  primary  children? 

9.  What  are  the  natural  rewards  for  children?  What 
are  the  natural  punishments  for  small  children? 

10.  How  far  is  a  teacher  justified  in  working  for  punctuality 
and  regularity  of  attendance.  Are  there  any  things  of  greater 
importance  in  school  than  these?     If  so,  what  are  they? 


CHAPTER   TWO 

FIRST  YEAR  READING 

1.  Importance  of  Reading.  Reading  is  the  most  impor- 
tant study  with  which  the  child  has  to  deal  in  the  first  three 
years  of  his  school  life.  The  art  of  reading  once  mastered,  all 
literature  is  within  his  reach  and  the  pupil  passes  at  once  from 
the  dependent  to  the  independent  stage;  hence,  it  is  of  vital 
importance  to  him  that  his  teacher  be  skilled  in  methods  that 
will  enable  him  to  learn  rapidly  with  the  least  expenditure  of 
time  and  of  nervous  force. 

2.  Methods  Discussed.  There  are  various  methods  by 
which  the  beginnings  of  reading  are  taught,  viz. : 

(a)  The  alphabet  method. 

(b)  The  word  method. 

(c)  The  phonic  method. 

(d)  The  sentence  method. 

(e)  The  eclectic  method,  a  union  of  the  other  four. 

Some  writers  on  reading  methods  refer  to  a  thought  method, 
which  is  but  another  name  for  the  sentence  method,  and  to  an 
action  method.  The  latter  is  usually  presented  in  two  ways: 
(i)  by  the  development  and  teaching  of  verbs  of  action, 
having  the  meaning  of  the  words  shown  by  the  performance 
of  the  acts  for  which  the  words  stand;  (2)  by  forming  imper- 
ative sentences  consisting  of  a  verb  of  action,  used  alone  or  in 
combination  with  other  words.  These  tell  the  child  what  to 
do  and  he  performs  the  act  to  prove  that  (silently)  he  has  read 
the  command  correctly.  This  so-called  action  method  is  not 
really  broad  enough  to  be  dignified  as  a  separate  method,  but 
is  very  valuable  as  a  device  for  lending  interest  to  the  reading 
lesson  and  in  removing  self-consciousness.  It  is  illustrated 
by  a  lesson  given  later. 

(a)  The  Alphabet  Method.  The  alphabet  method,  used 
almost  universally  in  America  until  about  1870,  is  now  chiefly 
of  historical  interest.     This  method  teaches  one  letter  at  a 

25 


26  Public  School  Methods 

time  until  the  entire  alphabet  is  conquered.  Then  short 
syllables  are  taught;  as,  a-b,  ab;  a-t,  at;  a-n,  an,  by  putting 
two  or  more  letters  together.  After  the  short  nonsense  syl- 
lables are  spelled  and  pronounced,  combinations  of  three 
letters,  then  words  of  one  syllable,  follow.  The  next  step  is 
joining  syllables  to  form  easy  words,  and  the  last,  joining 
words  to  make  sentences.  The  interesting  old  "horn-books" 
(modern  slate  with  the  print  protected  by  transparent  horn) 
were  thus  graded. 

That  naming  the  letters  of  a  word  could  have  been  once 
thought  the  best  aid  to  pronouncing  the  word  is  amusing  to 
us  now.  We  see  that,  valuable  as  the  practice  was  in  spelling, 
it  was  almost  useless  for  the  reading  of  words  and  sentences. 
In  the  alphabet  method,  spelling  becomes  all  important,  and 
as  long  as  educators  believed  reading  to  be  an  outgrowth  of 
spelling,  this  method  was  universal.  Now  that  we  know  the 
falsity  of  the  assumption,  the  alphabet  is  not  taught  until 
the  work  of  reading  is  fairly  begun,  and  then  chiefly  from 
its  need  in  oral  spelling  and  in  writing.  Later,  the  pupil 
will  need  to  know  the  alphabet  in  order  to  use  without 
loss  of  time  the  dictionary  and  other  works  arranged  alpha- 
betically. 

(b)  The  Phonic  Method.  In  this  method  sounds  are  used 
as  the  basis  of  instruction.  It  is  a  spelling  method,  but  the 
word  is  spelled  by  its  elementary  sounds,  and  not  by  the  letter- 
names.  The  word  is  pronounced  slowly  until  its  sounds  come 
into  consciousness,  and  these  sounds  are  associated  with  the 
letters  representing  them.  The  method  grew  out  of  the  child's 
need  to  master  without  assistance  the  pronunciation  of  printed 
words.  The  alphabet  method  always  combined  something  of 
phonics  with  it,  for  in  dealing  with  the  letters  and  syllables 
the  pupils  naturally  gained  a  certain  familiarity  with  the 
sounds  represented  by  each  letter.  The  various  steps  in  this 
method  are  (i)  the  single  sound,  (2)  combining  sounds  to 
make  syllables  upon  which  to  build,  (3)  building  words  from 
syllables,  (4)  pronouncing  new  words,  singly  or  in  sentences, 
by  uttering  their  component  sounds. 


First  Year  Reading  27 

The  great  objection  to  the  exclusive  use  of  the  phonic 
method  at  first  is  that  it  takes  weeks  and  months  to  master 
all  the  sounds  and  symbols  that  the  child  must  have  in  order 
to  interpret  sentences  independently.  Meantime,  his  thought- 
power  is  weakened  instead  of  strengthened  and  he  gains  little 
or  nothing  of  value,  from  the  literary  standpoint,  until  his  first 
three  years  of  school  are  gone.  The  great  value  of  the  method, 
when  used  gradually  and  by  easy  stages,  while  the  child  is 
learning  to  read  by  any  method  which  emphasizes  the  fact  that 
reading  is  getting  thought  from  the  printed  page,  is  that  it  makes 
the  child  independent  by  giving  him  a  key  which  he  may  use 
for  himself.     See  pages  83-92,  Sections  24-33. 

(c)  The  Word  Method.  The  word  method,  beginning 
with  the  first  illustrated  reading  book  (Orbis  Pictus  of  Comen- 
ius,  1657),  uses  the  single  word  as  a  unit  and,  in  practice,  the 
entire  word  is  taught  without  any  reference  to  the  letters  that 
compose  it.  The  pictures  of  the  Orbis  Pictus  suggested  the 
names  printed  below  "without  using  any  ordinary  tedious 
spelling."  For  instance,  with  a  picture  of  a  goose  would  go 
the  words,  "  The  goose  gagleth."  The  "  very  looking  upon  the 
thing  pictured  suggests  the  name  of  the  thing,"  as  Comenius 
insisted.  The  child  recognizes  it  as  a  whole,  the  same  as  he 
recognizes  any  material  object.  The  word  having  a  definite 
idea  back  of  it,  the  meaning  appeals  to  the  child  and 
he  has  less  trouble  to  learn  the  word-form  than  a  single 
letter. 

The  appearance  of  a  word  is  not  the  sum  of  letter-appear- 
ances, nor  is  the  sound  of  it  the  sum  of  letter-sounds,  as  you 
will  find  by  testing  any  word.  The  word  has  a  character  of 
its  own,  so  the  word  method,  which  treats  it  as  a  distinct  thing, 
shortens  the  whole  process  of  word  learning. 

The  word  method,  however,  does  not  give  opportunity  for 
extended  thought,  nor  does  it  give  the  pupil  power  to  pro- 
nounce for  himself;  therefore,  a  second  and  a  third  step  are 
needed.  The  second  step  is  to  combine  words  to  make  a 
sentence,  there  being  no  reading  possible  until  there  is  a  com- 
plete thought  to  be  expressed.     The  third  step  consists  of 


28  Public  School  Methods 

separating  the  words  into  their  elements,  to  help  the  child  to 
the  independent  pronunciation  and  spelling  of  new  words. 

(d)  The  Sentence  Method.  This  method  makes  not  the 
letter,  the  sound,  or  the  word,  but  the  sentence,  the  unit  in 
reading.  The  argument  for  such  a  method  is  as  follows:  The 
sentence  is  the  unit  of  thought  and  holds  a  higher  element  of 
interest  than  any  other  thing  that  may  be  used;  the  child 
recognizes  the  form  of  a  short  sentence,  as  a  whole,  as  easily  as 
he  does  the  longer  single  words;  by  this  method  he  may  be 
taught  to  read  things  of  value  with  perfect  expression  in  his 
very  first  lesson.  As  a  second  step  the  sentence  is  broken  into 
its  parts.  The  little  reader  must  know  the  words  and  phrases 
absolutely,  otherwise  when  new  groupings  of  the  same  element 
occur  he  will  be  unable  to  recognize  them. 

This  method  cannot  be  used  exclusively,  because  the  child 
must  be  taught  to  pronounce  new  words  for  himself  and 
because  he  cannot  recognize  long  sentences  as  wholes. 

(e)  The  Combination  or  Eclectic  Method.  This  method 
is  a  judicious  blending  of  the  four  just  described.  Combining 
the  four  gives  the  child  the  benefit  of  the  best  in  each  and 
relieves  him  from  the  objectionable  features  of  all.  Moreover, 
the  teacher  is  able  to  give  precedence  to  the  method  which  she 
finds  her  own  particular  school  most  needs.  For  all  of  these 
reasons,  then,  we  commend  this  union  of  methods  rather  than 
a  slavish  adherence  to  any  one  of  them.  Indeed,  before  the 
child  can  become  able  to  read  independently,  portions  of  all 
methods  will  be  used,  no  matter  with  what  method  we  begin. 

3.  How  to  Unify  Methods.  The  best  results  in  reading 
seem  to  be  obtained  by  beginning  with  the  sentence  method, 
and  by  using  the  sentences  given  by  the  pupils  themselves  in 
reply  to  questions  from  the  teacher.  The  questions  should 
always  be  about  some  familiar  object  and  framed  so  that  the 
child  will  give  definite  sentences  as  the  answers. 

The  object  should  have  some  definite  attraction  in  itself, 
be  present  and  passed  from  one  pupil  to  another  for  close 
observation.  Thus,  there  may  be  a  pretty  flower,  a  red  apple, 
a  whistle,  a  top,  a  ball,  a  doll,  a  pet  kitten,  or  any  other 


First  Year  Reading  29 

object  that  is  easy  to  get  and  is  attractive  to  children  from 
five  to  six  years  of  age.  In  any  case,  an  informal  talking 
exercise  should  precede  any  formal  reading  lesson,  until  the 
children  become  acquainted  and  feel  at  home  in  the  school- 
room. 

4.  Early  Lessons,  (a)  The  First  Lesson.  Children  will 
soonest  forget  their  shyness  and  homesickness  in  some  occupa- 
tion that  will  absorb  all  their  energies  by  its  interest.  There- 
fore, let  each  beginner  on  the  first  morning,  for  instance,  take 
the  ball  in  his  hands  and  find  out  something  to  tell  you  about 
it;  or  have  several  different  balls,  one  for  each  child.  One 
may  be  of  rubber,  another  of  yarn  with  a  bright  leather  cover; 
a  third  may  be  of  celluloid,  gayly  colored ;  a  fourth,  of  glass ; 
a  fifth,  an  ordinary  baseball. 

Call  each  child  by  name  and  get  the  statement  from  each, 
"  I  have  a  ball,"  in  reply  to  your  questions,  "What  have  you, 
Anna?",  "What  have  you,  John?",  "  What  have  you,  Dora?", 
"What  have  you,  Harry?",  "What  have  you,  Gertrude?", 
passed  rapidly  from  one  to  another.  In  the  same  way,  get 
other  short,  natural  sentences  called  out  by  the  question, 
"What  color  is  your  ball?";  as,  "My  ball  is  black."  "My 
ball  is  red."  "My  ball  is  white."  "  My  ball  is  red  and  white." 
Other  questions  will  bring:  "My  ball  is  hard."  "My  ball  is 
soft."  "This  is  a  rubber  ball."  "This  is  a  glass  ball." 
"This  is  a  yarn  ball."     " This  is  a  celluloid  ball."1 

Cautions,  (i)  Do  not  hurry  the  children  into  nervousness 
and  self-consciousness,  but  work  rapidly  yourself,  keep 
interest  active  and  thus  get  rapid  work  from  the  children. 

(2)  During  this  and  all  similar  exercises  be  natural  and 
informal,  as  in  ordinary  conversation. 

(3)  Note  peculiarities  of  speech,  make  necessary  corrections 
quietly  and  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  cause  embarrassment. 
"Say  it  this  way,  Anna."  If  the  child  shows  nervousness, 
pass  to  the  next  pupil,  without  insisting  upon  compliance. 

1  Flowers  may  be  easier  to  get  than  balls  and  will  have  much  interest  for  the 
class.  Children  have  a  double  interest  in  active  objects  or  in  those  that  may  be 
given  motion,  and  in  consequence  such  objects  should  be  used  frequently. 


30  Public  School  Methods 

One  might  say,  pleasantly,  "Anna  seems  a  little  shy  to-day. 
I  wonder  if  some  one  else  will  help  her  and  say  that  for  her 
this  time?"  This  promotes  friendly  feeling,  covers  the 
embarrassment  and  lays  the  foundation  for  the  much  desiied 
spirit  of  helpfulness. 

(b)  The  Second  Lesson.  When  the  reading  period 
comes  around  again,  give  out  the  balls  in  a  different  order; 
recall  the  sentence,  "  I  have  a  ball,"  and  say,  "  Now  see  me 
write  what  you  said,  on  the  blackboard."  "What  is  the  first 
word?"  "Now  the  next  word?"  "And  what  is  it  you  have?" 
Write  the  words  as  given,  in  large,  clear  script,  free  from  shad- 
ing and  other  ornamentation.  The  questions  are  asked  to 
hold  the  interest  and  to  concentrate  the  attention  of  the  class 
upon  the  form  of  the  word  as  you  write  it. 

As  you  finish  the  last  word,  place  a  period  after  it,  remark- 
ing, "  Now  I  have  finished  writing  the  statement  (or,  what 
you  told  me)  and  so  I  put  this  period  after  it  to  show  it  is 
the  end.  See,  it  is  just  a  little  dot,  but  its  name  is  period. 
You  may  all  say  the  word  period  and  then  you  will  remember 
it." 

"Who  told  me  what  to  write  on  the  board?"  "Look  at 
the  statement  and  tell  it  to  me  again."  "How  many  know 
the  first  word  I  wrote?"  "What  is  it,  John?"  "Show  the 
word  /  where  I  wrote  it."  "  Gertrude,  what  was  the  next 
word?"  "Harry,  show  me  have."  "Anna,  show  me  /." 
"  John,  tell  me  the  first  two  words."  "  /  have — what,  Harry?" 
"  Show  me  where  it  says  a  ball,  Anna."  "Tell  me  the  second 
word,  Dora."  "Show  have  upon  the  board."  "Now,  the 
last  word,  Dora."  "All  tell  the  first  word."  "John,  touch 
the  last  word."  "What  is  it,  Anna?"  "  Read  and  touch  the 
first  two  words,  Harry."  "The  last  two,  Dora."  "Read 
the  whole  line  as  I  point,  class."  "Anna,  read  it  alone." 
"What  is  the  name  of  this  dot?"  "Who  remembers  why 
I  put  it  there?"  "That  is  fine.  You  have  all  done  well. 
You  will  be  famous  readers  one  of  these  days.  Now 
pass  to  the  board  and  see  if  you  can  write  the  word  ball  as  I 
wrote  it." 


First  Year  Reading  31 

Cautions,  (i)  The  above  reading  lesson  will  be  easily- 
accomplished  in  ten  minutes  or  less.  Spend  the  remainder 
of  the  fifteen  in  guiding  the  little  hands  as  they  try  to  write 
on  the  board. 

(2)  During  these  blackboard  lessons  be  very  careful  not 
to  question  so  as  to  cause  the  child  to  separate  the  article 
from  the  noun.  That  spoils  the  phrasing  so  essential  to 
smoothness  and  expression  in  singing,  talking  or  reading. 

(3)  Teach  children,  by  constant  example  and  usage,  to 
pronounce  a  or  the  as  if  it  were  an  unaccented  syllable  of  the 
noun  to  which  it  belongs. 

(c)  Punctuation  Marks.  Make  no  attempt  to  define 
the  terms  "statement"  or  "sentence."  The  children  grad- 
ually learn  the  meaning  of  the  words  from  the  way  you  use 
them;  also  that  some  of  the  sentences  tell  something;  some 
ask  something,  and  others  command  something.  Thus  you 
combine  language  with  reading,  adding  to  the  child's  knowl- 
edge and  vocabulary. 

The  period  and  question  mark  are  the  punctuation  marks 
in  constant  use  during  the  first  year's  lessons.  Teach  their 
names  and  use  as  indicated,  taking  no  appreciable  time  from 
the  lesson  for  it.  "The  question  mark  is  placed  here  to 
show  that  we  are  through  writing  a  question." 

Keep  in  mind  that  marks  of  punctuation  are  to  indicate 
grammatical  structure,  and  do  not  teach  the  child  to  think 
that  these  marks  control  the  pauses  made  in  reading  aloud. 
The  reading  is  solely  to  interpret  thought  and  feeling  pleas- 
ingly, and  the  sentiment  alone  controls  the  pauses.  Thus, 
an  interrogation  point  sometimes  is  followed  by  the  rising 
inflection  and  sometimes  by  the  falling.  The  period  is  usually 
followed  by  the  falling  inflection  of  the  voice  and  a  full  stop. 
In  negative  sentences,  however,  or  in  those  wherein  strong 
doubt  is  expressed,  the  period  is  followed  by  the  rising  inflec- 
tion or  by  a  long  pause  of  suspension,  according  to  the  exact 
meaning  to  be  conveyed.  The  child  needs  to  be  trained  to 
keep  his  mind  concentrated  on  what  is  to  be  expressed  and 
to  get  into  hearty  sympathy  with  the  thought  and  feeling 


32  Public  School  Methods 

in  each  sentence  or  paragraph.  When  this  is  invariably 
followed,  the  expression,  as  a  rule,  will  be  correct  and  the 
pauses  be  naturally  placed  without  any  direct  reference  to 
them.  Reading  as  an  art  is  taught  long  before  it  may  be 
studied  as  a  science. 

(d)  The  Use  of  Capitals.  In  a  similar  way,  the  pupils, 
during  the  first  year,  may  be  taught  three  facts  in  regard  to 
the  use  of  capitals    in  writing,  viz. : 

(i)  People,  when  writing,  begin  every  sentence  with  a 
capital  letter. 

(2 )  Every  written  name  of  a  person  must  begin  with  a  capital. 

(3)  A  geographical  name,  when  written,  must  begin  with 
a  capital. 

When  a  teacher  has  occasion  to  write  any  sentence  upon 
the  board,  that  sentence  must  always  have  all  the  capitals 
and  punctuation  marks  used  in  their  correct  places,  that 
the  constant  example  may  help  to  establish  for  the  pupil  the 
law  of  usage. 

When  any  sentence  is  drawn  from  a  pupil  in  the  reading 
exercise,  and  the  teacher  turns  to  write  it,  she  remarks  quietly, 
"  I  must  begin  this  first  word  with  a  capital  letter,  so  that 
everybody  can  tell  where  the  sentence  commences,"  or  "to 
show  just  where  the  sentence  begins."  Occasionally  ques- 
tion: "What  kind  of  a  letter  did  I  call  this?"  "Why  did 
I  begin  the  first  word  with  a  capital  letter  and  not  the  others 
in  the  sentence?"  No  need  to  take  appreciable  time  for  it. 
The  frequent  recalling  establishes  the  usuage.  Make  no 
attempt  to  define  the  word  capital  beyond  substituting  the 
word  large  in  its  stead  at  times. 

When  it  first  happens  that  the  name  of  a  pupil  appears 
in  a  sentence,  the  teacher  remarks  as  she  writes:  "Now  this 
is  Harry's  name  and  I  shall  begin  it  with  a  capital  H,  so  that 
we  may  pick  it  out  quickly  from  the  other  words,  for  that 
is  the  way  people  write."  Speak  in  a  similar  manner  when- 
ever the  opportunity  occurs,  till  the  rule  for  names  of  people 
is  learned.  In  this  way  the  rule  for  writing  names  of  places 
may  be  taught. 


First  Year  Reading  33 

6.  Later  Lessons,  (a)  Review.  In  the  next  reading 
lesson  take  the  balls,  recall  for  the  children  the  sentence 
"I  have  a  ball,"  and  write  it  quickly  and  clearly  upon  the 
board.  Then  get  such  sentences  as,  "I  have  a  red  ball," 
"  I  have  a  round  ball."  "  I  have  a  pretty  ball,"  by  questioning, 
and  write  each  sentence  as  given.  Treat  the  phrase  I  have 
as  a  unit,  now,  in  the  reading.  Drill  upon  the  new  words  as 
before.  Then  quickly  write  on  various  parts  of  the  board, 
"a  pretty  ball,"  "a  red  ball,"  "a  round  ball,"''  a  great  many 
times;  also  in  other  parts  of  the  board  "I  have."  Ask  one 
child  to  point  out  and  another  to  read  each  of  these  phrases. 
Then  do  the  pointing  yourself,  calling  upon  different  children 
to  read.  Work  very  rapidly,  but  very  carefully.  When  any 
child  fails,  have  another  tell  him  and  then  see  that  the  first 
child  is  called  upon  at  intervals  until  he  is  sure.  At  last, 
send  the  class  to  the  board.  "John  may  erase  /  have  every- 
where he  finds  it  written.  Dora,  erase  a  pretty  ball.  Harry, 
a  red  ball.  Anna,  a  round  ball,  everywhere  you  can  find  it." 
So  continue  your  directions  until  all  the  phrases  are  erased. 

Previous  to  the  lesson  just  given,  you  should  have  written 
on  the  blackboard  the  four  sentences  given  above  in  order, 
in  reverse  order,  and  again  in  irregular  order,  and  draw  a 
curtain  over  them.  After  the  phrases  have  been  drilled  upon 
as  above,  draw  back  the  curtain;  treat  the  entire  sentences 
as  follows:  "Anna,  read  the  first  sentence;"  "Gertrude,  the 
second;"  "Harry,  the  third;"  "John,  the  fourth;"  "Dora 
may  read  all  of  them."  Treat  in  the  same  way  each  group 
of  sentences.     At  last,  erase  as  read. 

(b)  New  Lesson.  The  following  lesson  should  introduce 
a  change.  Recall  /  have,  and  then  by  use  of  proper  objects 
and  questions  work  out  the  following  sentences: 

I  have  a  flower. 

I  have  a  red  flower. 

I  have  a  pretty  flower. 

I  have  a  pretty  red  flower. 
Drill  on  these  sentences  and  phrases  as  before,  using  also 
the  word  ball  singly  and  in  phrases. 


34  Public  School  Methods 

We  may  next  introduce  a  new  verb.  For  the  sake  of  the 
action,  this  new  verb  may  well  be  find  or  bring  or  show. 
The  reading  lesson  will  be  preceded  by  a  talking  exercise  in 
which  the  teacher  constantly  uses  the  new  verb  in  her  re- 
quests, and  this  lesson  when  written  upon  the  board  may 
be: 

Find  a  red  flower. 

Find  a  round  ball. 

Find  a  pretty  ball. 

Find  a  pretty  flower. 

Find  a  red  ball. 
After  a  quick  oral  drill  upon  the  above,  the  teacher  points 
to  the  first  sentence,  saying,  "  Read  this  sentence  to  yourself, 
Harry,  and  do  just  what  it  tells  you.  All  the  rest  watch 
carefully,  to  be  ready  to  help  Harry  if  he  makes  a  mistake." 
Have  sentences  read  and  verified  thus  from  first  to  last,  in 
reverse  order  and  then  irregularly,  pupils  reading  and  working 
silently  all  this  time. 

This  is  the  pupil's  introduction  to  silent  reading,  as 
such,  but  from  this  time  no  day  should  pass  with- 
out requiring  some  work  of  this  kind,  to  beget  care- 
fulness. In  fact,  at  no  time  during  the  first  year  should 
the  pupil  be  allowed  to  read  any  sentence  orally  until 
he  has  taken  time  first  to  read  it  silently.  This  course, 
rigidly  adhered  to,  is  of  the  utmost  value,  as  it  teaches 
the  child  how  to  study  and  prevents  the  many  bad  habits 
resulting  from  inattention  or  trying  to  do  things  without 
preparation. 

(c)  Action  Sentences.  As  a  child's  life  is  largely  made 
up  of  action,  action  sentences  may  well  be  used  in  the  process 
of  learning  to  read.  In  giving  a  sentence  for  the  first  time, 
use  the  child's  impulse  to  imitate.  If  the  word  hop  is  to  be 
used,  write  it  on  the  board  with  a  capital  and  a  period,  to 
show  that  it  is  a  complete  thought.  Then  let  the  teacher 
perform  the  action,  so  the  child  may  make  the  connection 
between  the  word  and  the  action.  Lastly,  let  the  children 
who  can  "read"  the  sentence  perform  the  action,  or  select 


First  Year  Reading  35 

a  slow  child  to  perform  it,  and  later  let  him  "read"  the 
sentence,  e.  g. : 

Hop. 

Hop  to  me. 

Hop  to  the  door. 

Run. 

Run  to  me. 

Run  to  the  door. 

Run  around  the  room. 

Hop  around  the  room. 

Other  verbs  that  should  be  taught  early  in  the  term  are 
run,  jump,  walk,  fly,  skip,  hop,  bow,  look,  open,  shut,  give, 
take,  throw,  shake,  laugh,  cry,  sing,  ring,  roll,  bound,  drop, 
erase,  come,  go,  stop,  hide,  bring  and  show.  All  verbs  of  this 
class  are  easy  to  teach,  because  the  meaning  is  shown  in 
each  case  by  the  action  the  word  represents.  Such  words 
as  is,  are,  and,  but,  for,  if,  and  the  like,  must  be  taught  in 
phrases  and  sentences  without  attempt  at  definition.  Pupils 
gain  the  meaning  by  inference. 

(d)  Pictures  and  Reading.  The  value  of  showing  illus- 
trative pictures  with  sentences,  beside  adding  interest, 
emphasizes  the  meaning  of  the  sentence  as  it  is  read. 

If  the  teacher  can  draw  on  the  board,  however  crudely, 
she  can  give  meaning  to  a  vocabulary  insisted  upon  by  the 
superintendent.  Perry  pictures  and  other  illustrations  are 
now  so  cheap  that  a  list  of  words  may  be  readily  made  into 
interesting  reading   through   their  use. 

From  the  picture,  Can  You  Talk,  a  first  grade  teacher 
made  the  following  reading  lesson.  All  but  two  words  in  the 
lesson  were  in  her  required  list: 

What  do  you  see? 

I  see  the  dog. 

I  see  the  baby. 

I  see  the  cat. 

The  baby  looks  at  the  dog. 

The  dog  looks  at  the  baby. 

Good  morning! 


36  Public  School  Metltods 

Bow-wow ! 

What  do  you  say? 

Bow-wow! 

Can't  you  talk? 

The  teacher  showed  the  picture,  and  after  the  children  had 
studied  and  admired  it,  wrote  the  first  sentence  on  the  board. 
The  remaining  sentences  were  either  given  first  by  one  child 
and  read  by  another,  or  supplied  by  the  teacher,  constant 
reference  being  made  to  the  picture.  Later,  the  teacher 
made  a  chart  page  of  the  lesson,  pinning  the  picture  above. 

Nouns  are  illustrated  by  objects,  pictures,  etc.  When 
the  first  pronoun  is  given  in  a  lesson,  the  teacher  quickly 
shows  how  unpleasant  it  would  be  to  keep  repeating  a  person's 
name.  "  And  so  we  use  the  word  he  to  make  it  sound  better, 
that  is  all." 

Conversational  terms  and  phrases  should,  also,  be  early 
taught  in  connection  with  the  blackboard  lessons  and  freely 
used  in  such  lessons  to  give  greater  naturalness  and  variety, 
both  qualities  being  necessary  to  prevent  loss  of  interest  and 
consequent  monotony  of  expression.  The  phrases  and  words 
best  adapted  to  such  use  are  Good  morning;  good  night; 
how  do  you  do;  if  you  please  (or,  please);  thank  you;  good  bye; 
by  and  by;  yes;  no;  certainly;  do  you;  will  you;  can  you;  who; 
what;  why;  when;  where;  there;  very  soon;  at  once;  immediately. 

The  teaching  of  these  words  should  not  be  hurried.  Teach 
and  use  one  until  learned,  then  introduce  another.  Change 
the  position  of  such  words  and  phrases  in  the  sentences  very 
frequently  and  be  sure  that  each  one  is  taught  and  remem- 
bered as  a  unit,  the  same  as  a  single  word.  Continue  their 
use  in  blackboard  lessons  throughout  the  first  two  years. 

To  lend  greater  interest  and  promote  natural  expression 
in  these  early  lessons,  be  careful  not  to  dwell  too  long  upon 
the  statement.  Follow  the  suggestion  given  to  teach  and 
use  a  variety  of  action  words,  thus  getting  the  command 
(imperative  sentences)  established.  Also,  teach  the  inter- 
rogative sentence  form  by  questioning  in  such  manner  as  to 
get  a  question  from  the  child  that  may  be  woven  naturally 


First  Year  Reading  37 

into  the  lesson.  The  lessons  containing  these  three  forms 
are  far  more  interesting.  Introduce  exclamatory  forms, 
also,  when  the  subject  permits. 

(e)  Other  Lessons.  Other  blackboard  lessons  may  be 
worked  out  and  drilled  upon  in  ways  similar  to  the  above, 
combining  the  sentence  method  and  the  word  method  as 
shown.  Each  day  give  two  or  three  new  words,  reviewing 
the  previous  ones.  Keep  the  sentences  very  short  for  the 
first  month,  but  make  a  great  many  new  ones  from  new  com- 
binations of  the  same  words  and  phrases.  Before  the  end 
of  the  first  term  from  ten  to  fifteen  sentences  are  used  in  one 
lesson.  Occasionally  you  should  fill  one  entire  period  with 
review  work,  giving  no  new  words. 

The  great  causes  of  hesitation,  repetition,  stumbling  and 
mistakes  in  reading  during  the  first  three  years  are  due  to 
timidity  and  uncertainty  in  regard  to  the  forms  of  the  words 
in  the  sentences  the  pupil  attempts  to  read.  The  great  need 
is,  first,  to  win  the  confidence  of  the  child  and  then  teach  each 
new  word  so  thoroughly  that  he  cannot  forget  it  nor  mistake 
it.  To  this  end,  as  before  said,  always  require  the  child  to 
read  the  sentence  silently  before  he  tries  to  read  it  orally. 
Train  all  to  look  carefully  at  each  sentence  given  to  see  if 
they  can  find  any  new  words  there. 

Another  fruitful  cause  of  trouble  for  the  child  is  intro- 
ducing both  articles  into  the  lessons  of  the  first  week,  or  two 
forms  of  the  same  verb.  Introduce  have  thoroughly,  if  you 
begin  with  that  word,  before  giving  has  or  had.  To  use  the 
second  article  too  soon  is  sure  to  result  in  too  much  emphasis 
on  the  article  and  in  separating  it  from  the  word  following, 
thus  destroying  smoothness  and  expression  in  reading. 

Caution.  The  teacher  who  has  the  first  year  pupils  must 
hold  herself  responsible  for  the  habits  they  acquire  and 
prevent  bad  habits  by  establishing  good  ones. 

6.  Oral  Reading.  Good  oral  reading  is  voicing  the 
thoughts  obtained  from  a  written  or  printed  page  in  a  manner 
to  please  the  listener,  as  well  as  to  interpret  the  author's 
sentiments  correctly.     This  necessitates  (i)  the  instantaneous 


38  Public  School  Methods 

recognition  of  word  and  phrase  forms,  (2)  a  clear,  distinct 
articulation,  (3)  a  pleasant  voice,  (4)  an  unconstrained  man- 
ner, (5)  a  natural  expression,  (6)  an  understanding  of  and  sym- 
pathy with  the  thought  and  feeling  expressed  by  the  author, 
(7)  forgetfulness  of  self. 

All  this  is  a  matter  of  course  when  the  child  expresses 
his  own  sentiments  to  a  sympathetic  listener  with  whom  he 
feels  no  constraint.  The  same  results  are  quite  possible  in 
the  reading  of  the  first  year  pupil.  Thorough  work  must  be 
done  in  teaching  the  word  forms;  bad  habits  must  be  pre- 
vented, and  the  child  taught  to  read  every  selection  just  as 
he  thinks  the  author  would  say  it  if  he  were  present.  In 
other  words,  from  the  outset,  the  pupil  should  be  trained  to 
read  for  the  author,  and  to  the  teacher  and  class  with  the 
direct  purpose  of  pleasing  them. 

7.  Local  Errors  in  Pronunciation.  In  every  school  there 
are  faults  of  articulation  and  peculiar  pronunciations  of 
words;  therefore,  the  teacher  should  be  alert  to  detect  and 
note  such  errors  for  the  purpose  of  eliminating  them  from 
the   school. 

Suppose  there  is  a  general  habit  of  dropping  the  final  g. 
Say  little  about  the  fault,  but  write  a  list  of  words  ending 
in  ing  and,  at  the  time  for  phonic  drill,  have  the  entire  school 
unite  in  pronouncing  these  words  after  you.  From  top  to 
bottom,  bottom  to  top,  across  the  rows,  skipping  about,  use 
all  ways  to  keep  the  pupils  on  the  alert  to  follow  you. 

It  may  be  that  several  local  errors  of  pronunciation  exist. 
Pupils  may  have  great  difficulty  with  words  ending  in  sts, 
pth,  dth,  etc.  Use  the  same  general  plan,  drilling  upon  such 
words  as  fists,  mists,  posts,  hosts,  boasts,  height,  breadth,  depth, 
length,  etc.  In  addition  to  the  lists,  write  sentences  contain- 
ing words  that  are  difficult  to  enunciate  clearly;  as, 
Swim,  swan,  swim!  swim  o'er  the  sea; 
O'er  the  sea,  swan,  swim,  swim  back  to  me. 

In  case  there  is  a  marked  tendency  to  blend  words  unpleas- 
antly, give  such  sentences  as  these:  "Did  you  say  ice  cream 
or  I   scream?"     "An  ice  house  or  a  nice  house?"     Should 


First  Year  Reading  39 

there  be  much  of  the  foreign  element  among  your  pupils, 
there  will  be  trouble  with  the  sounds  of  th,  y  and  /.  Give 
much  drill  upon  words  commencing  with  these  letters,  show- 
ing the  pupils  exactly  how  to  adjust  the  vocal  organs  to  make 
the  sound  desired.  This  explanation  and  precise  showing 
will  also  be  necessary  in  teaching  the  difference  in  the  sounds 
of  d  and  t,  f  and  v. 

When  unpleasant  blendings  of  words  occur,  the  fault  is 
generally  caused  by  the  failure  to  separate  the  lips  after 
speaking  one  word  and  before  speaking  the  next.  Indistinct 
articulation  is  generally  caused  by  keeping  the  lips  too  much 
closed,  by  closing  the  lips  before  the  word  is  fully  uttered 
or  by  keeping  the  teeth  too  closely  shut  while  speaking. 
Each  fault  suggests  its  own  remedy  and  the  teacher  should 
overcome  these,  one  by  one,  by  persistent  drills. 

The  foregoing  faults  are  apt  to  be  more  or  less  general 
to  the  school,  and  hence  the  entire  school  may,  and  should, 
participate  in  the  phonic  drills  suggested,  the  youngest  and 
the  oldest  together. 

Lists  of  words  and  sentences  for  this  drill  should  be  care- 
fully prepared  and  clearly  written  upon  the  board.  The 
curtain  may  be  kept  over  them  until  they  are  needed.  Begin 
each  of  these  drills  by  exercises  in  deep  breathing,  the  pupils 
standing,  with  the  windows  open  for  a  minute  to  freshen  the 
air  of  the  room. 

8.  The  Alphabet.  The  alphabet  is  not  directly  taught  as 
a  feature  of  any  reading  lesson  in  the  first  term  or  later,  but 
is  used  as  follows:  On  one  or  more  pages  of  the  reading 
chart  you  prepare  for  use  in  the  first  term,  have  rows  of 
proper  names  in  straight  line,  capital  (print)  letters  which 
the  children  are  able  to  copy  with  the  short  colored  sticks 
used  by  kindergartners,  or  with  the  less  attractive  toothpicks. 
Other  names  involving  curved  lines  may  be  copied  with  the 
colored  sticks  or  with  shoe  pegs.  (See  pages  42  and  43.) 
Bright  colored  beans  or  kernels  of  corn  also  may  be  used. 

For  the  very  first  lesson  of  this  kind  it  will  probably  take 
all  the  time  to  show  each  child  of  the  beginning  classhis 


40  Public  School  Methods 

own  name  and  have  that  name  made  and  examined.  Nothing 
but  individual  work  will  answer  until  the  children  learn  how 
to  follow  general  directions.  As  the  teacher  examines,  she 
says,  for  example,  to  one,  "  See  here,  Emma,  you  have  made 
your  E  turn  the  wrong  way.  Now  look  at  the  E  on  the 
chart  [pointing  to  it]  and  make  yours  just  like  it."  After 
a  little  she  returns  to  Emma  and  commends  her  improved 
work.  To  another,  "Your  W  is  upside  down;  see  how  it  is 
on  the  chart." 

There  is  no  apparent  effort  to  teach  the  names  of  the  letters. 
The  teacher  uses  the  names  as  a  matter  of  course  and  the 
children  learn  them  soon  from  the  law  of  association. 

The  proper  names  are  given  first  because  of  their  greater 
interest.  After  the  child  makes  his  own  name  correctly  he 
tries  to  make  that  of  his  neighbor  or  friend,  then  the  names 
of  all  the  class  as  he  becomes  more  expert.  A  new  step  is  to 
make  other  words  than  proper  names  in  the  same  way. 
Later,  boxes  of  alphabets  are  distributed  for  the  busy  work, 
and  the  class  builds  sentences  as  well  as  single  words. 

The  names  of  the  letters  are  also  used  in  the  penmanship 
lessons  as  the  teacher  gives  new  letters  to  be  written  or 
corrects  errors  that  have  been  made.  As  soon  as  he  has 
gained  a  little  control  of  his  hand,  the  child  may  be  required 
to  copy  in  script,  once  a  day,  new  words  from  his  reading 
lesson,  using  the  letters  intelligently.  Any  copying  he  has 
done  previously  in  script  has  been  merely  imitating  the 
letter  forms  without  any  reference  to  their  names,  his  mind 
being  held  to  the  word  and  not  to  the  letters  of  that  word. 

In  this  informal  fashion,  the  child,  by  the  end  of  the 
first  year,  usually  knows  the  names  and  forms  of  all  the 
letters,  large  and  small,  in  print  and  in  script. 

9.  From  Script  to  Print.  To  make  the  transition  from 
script  to  print  easy  and  natural,  the  teacher  should  keep  in 
a  notebook,  for  her  own  reference,  lists  of  all  the  words  the 
pupils  have  learned.  From  this  list,  she  may  write  columns 
of  words  and,  in  parallel  columns,  for  a  few  days  only,  print 
the  same  words,  giving  occasional  drills  upon  them.     Later, 


First  Year  Reading  41 

the  same  words  may  be  used  indiscriminately  in  print  or 
script.  Call  two  children  to  the  board,  giving  a  pointer  to 
each.  The  first  child  points  out  and  names  a  word  in  the 
printed  column,  and  the  second  shows  and  names  the  same 
word  in  the  written  column,  the  rest  of  the  class  acting  as 
critics.  When  an  error  occurs,  two  others  should  be  called 
to  the  board  to  do  the  work. 

As  a  further  and  more  difficult  device  for  the  same  purpose, 
write  a  sentence  and  just  below  it  print  the  same  sentence. 
Require  children  to  read  the  sentences  from  the  script,  but 
follow  the  printed  ones  when  building  the  sentences  for  busy 
work  from  the  boxes  of  alphabets  distributed  for  that 
purpose. 

Again,  the  teacher  may  say,  "  I  want  to  write  your  name, 
Anna;  what  letter  shall  I  write  first?  the  next  one?"  etc., 
until  the  name  is  done,  the  child  having  the  printed  form 
for  reference.  To  test  the  knowledge  of  the  child,  the  teacher 
occasionally  writes  a  wrong  letter. 

If  the  teacher  uses  for  her  blackboard  work  a  perfectly 
plain,  large  script,  with  little  or  no  slant,  the  difficulties 
will  be  materially  reduced,  because  such  script  is  very  similar 
in  form  to  the  usual  print.  But,  in  any  case,  the  devices 
suggested,  with  others  that  the  teacher  will  be  apt  to  think 
of,  persevered  in  for  a  little  while,  will  certainly  clear  up  all 
doubt  and  the  child  may  be  given  either  script  or  print  without 
causing  the  least  hesitation  on  his  part. 

10.  Chart  Making.  When  the  blackboard  space  is  suffi- 
cient, a  large  part  of  the  work  just  outlined  may  be  presented 
from  the  board.  When  there  is  but  little  room,  prepare 
chart  pages  and  use  them  for  the  drills.  These  charts,  once 
prepared,  may  be  used  for  several  classes  of  pupils. 

The  work  on  the  chart  is  better  done  by  the  aid  of  stencils, 
brush  and  India  ink,  rubber  pen  or  heavy  stub  pen,  and 
arranged  neatly  and  evenly.  Lines  very  faintly  ruled  on 
chart  or  blackboard  will  serve  to  keep  the  work  in  straight 
lines  until  the  teacher's  eye  and  hand  learn  to  work  in  such 
unison  as  makes  these  guide  lines  unnecessary.     For  general 


42 


Public  School  Methods 


directions,  refer  to  suggestions  upon  chart  making,  in  Lesson 
Twenty-one,  Section  4,  (d). 

11.  Adaptation  of  the  Method  to  the   School.     It  is  neces- 


The  names  on  this  page  contain  all  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  and  show  how  the 
letters  may  be  made  by  laying  toothpicks  or  splints. 


First  Year  Reading 


43 


sary  to  keep  in  mind  that  the  eclectic  method  is  a  combination 
of  four  elements  and  that  in  lessons  and  seat  work  together 
the  child  is  getting  daily  benefit  from  the  best  features  of 


cm* 


ANNA 

ANNE 

ELLA 

EMMA 

ETHEL 

ELAINE 

EVE 

HATTIE 

HETTIE 

HETTY 

HELEN 

NEZ 

KATE 

KATHLEEN 


KATIE 

LINA 

LETTY 

MATTIE 

MINNIE 

MAMIE 

NANNIE 

NETTIE 

NINA 

TEENY 

TILLIE 

VINA^j^ 

WINNIE 


The  names  on  this  page  may  alJ  be  made  with  straight  lines.     The  border  shows 
with  how  few  lines  pretty  decorative  forms  may  be  drawn. 


44  Public  School  Methods 

all  four.  From  the  use  of  sentences  he  learns  to  gather 
thought,  which  is  the  true  basis  of  all  reading.  From  the 
recognition  of  separate  words  and  the  added  word  drills, 
he  learns  to  translate  familiar  ideas,  heretofore  expressed 
in  spoken  words,  into  their  written  or  printed  forms,  and 
gains  much  needed  practice  in  correct  pronunciation.  From 
the  training  given  upon  phonics  and  the  alphabet,  he  grad- 
ually learns  to  help  himself  to  new  words,  all  of  these  together 
constituting  what  is  generally  called  the  mechanics  of  reading, 
an  essential  and  fundamental  part  of  learning  to  read.  And 
learning  to  read  must  precede  reading  to  learn  and  learning 
what  is  best  to  read,  the  other  two  parts  of  the  work  in 
reading. 

When  a  teacher  has  to  deal  almost  wholly  with  children 
of  foreign-born  parents,  there  must  be  a  great  deal  of  the 
word  method  and  a  great  deal  of  the  phonic  method.  Such 
children  hear  no  English  spoken  at  home,  and  the  ear  is 
necessarily  slow  to  catch  and  discriminate  among  the  sounds 
of  English  words.  With  such  pupils  it  is  usually  better  to 
begin  with  the  teaching  of  single  words,  rather  than  sentences, 
giving  frequent  drills  upon  the  pronunciation  of  common 
words  and  upon  giving,  after  the  teacher,  the  various  vowel 
and  consonant  sounds  without  reference  to  the  diacritical 
marks.  After  a  limited  number,  say  twenty-five,  of  nouns, 
common  adjectives  and  verbs  are  thoroughly  learned,  give 
these  children  combinations  of  the  familiar  words  in  phrases 
and  short  sentences,  and  then  proceed  as  with  children  of 
American-born  parents. 

If  the  beginners  are  about  equally  divided  between  native 
and  foreign,  it  is  sometimes  desirable  to  start  one  division 
with  the  sentence  method  and  the  other  with  the  word 
method,  giving  those  of  American  parentage  longer  lessons, 
since  the  others,  naturally,  will  need  more  time  and  more 
individual  work.  The  two  divisions  may  be  united  for  the 
drill  in  phonics,  and  the  greater  part  of  this  drill  may  be 
given  in  concert,  especially  until  the  timid  little  foreigners 
have  gained  courage  to  recite  alone  without  painful  embarrass- 


First  Year  Reading  45 

ment.  Concert  drills,  however,  may  help  to  perpetuate 
incorrect  enunciation,  unless  the  teacher  watches  the  utter- 
ance of  each  child  very  carefully. 

There  can  be  no  arbitrary  rules  laid  down  as  to  the  use 
of  this  or  that  method,  how  long  to  continue  one  or  the 
other,  or  how  much  of  one  to  give  or  how  much  of  another 
to  omit.  One  thing,  however,  is  certain:  There  is  not  now, 
and  never  can  be,  any  one  method  that  will  cover  the  teach- 
ing of  reading  and  make  the  work  equally  easy  and  pleasant 
for  all  the  pupils. 

Children  enter  the  lowest  primary  grade  at  ages  varying 
from  four  to  seven  years.  They  have  known  great  differences 
in  birth  and  in  home  training.  They  are  by  nature  differently 
endowed.  Some  are  distinctly  eye-minded,  others  as  markedly 
ear-minded.  Some  have  perfect  eyesight  and  hearing,  others 
have  defective  senses.  Some  are  alert  in  mind  and  body, 
others  slow.  Some  are  wide-awake,  seeing  and  hearing 
everything  about  them  quickly  and  to  the  last  detail;  others 
seem  to  be  in  a  half  dreamy  state,  seldom  rousing  to  full 
activity  of  body  or  mind.  Therefore,  as  long  as  the 
teacher  has  such  complex  and  varying  elements  in  the 
school — and  that  will  be  as  long  as  there  are  schools! 
— there  must  be  an  adaptation  of  methods  to  suit  the 
needs  of  the  school  and  of  the  individual  pupil.  More- 
over, this  adaptation  must  be  made  by  the  teacher  her- 
self, upon  her  best  judgment,  after  a  careful  study  of  the 
situation. 

The  methods  suggested  herein  are  such  as  have  been 
tested  over  and  over  by  ourselves  and  by  others,  and  they 
will  give  excellent  results  when  followed  intelligently.  How- 
ever, they  are  not  intended  for  slavish  imitation.  Their 
purpose  is  suggestive  rather  than  restrictive.  The  teacher's 
own  good  sense  and  intelligence  are  left  untrammeled  as  to 
minor  details.  The  responsibility  for  the  choice  of  method 
rests  so  certainly  upon  the  teacher  that  a  thorough  under- 
standing of  the  principles  is  the  least  preliminary  preparation 
that  can  be  tolerated. 


46  Public  School  Methods 

12.  Subjects  for  Blackboard  Lessons.  Children  of  small 
villages  and  of  the  rural  districts  enter  school  with  their 
heads  well  filled  with  ideas  that  they  have  gathered  from  their 
environment,  viz.,  ideas  of  the  home  and  family;  playthings 
and  games;  domestic  animals;  wild  animals  common  to  the 
locality;  birds,  insects,  fish,  trees,  flowers;  some  knowledge 
of  occupations  and  productions  and  other  things  difficult 
to  classify  and  far  too  numerous  to  mention  in  detail.  More- 
over, they  have  acquired  a  stock  of  possibly  two  thousand 
words,  several  hundred  of  which  they  use  freely  in  conversa- 
tion. Hence,  instead  of  "knowing  nothing  at  all,"  as  is 
often  claimed,  they  have  a  most  valuable  fund  of  knowledge 
with  which  to  begin  school  life. 

On  the  contrary,  they  know  little  of  the  full  value  of 
books.  Having  no  knowledge  of  written  or  printed  word 
forms,  the  treasures  of  thought  and  feeling  in  books  are 
entirely  beyond  their  grasp.  That  they  will  be  able  to  help 
themselves  to  all  the  delightful  things  in  books  as  soon  as 
they  have  learned  to  read  is  the  great  incentive  to  be  kept 
before  the  entering  classes,  to  stimulate  effort. 

There  is  no  fixed  law  and  no  uniform  practice  as  to  what 
shall  be  used  as  the  basis  of  the  earliest  lessons  in  reading. 
For  a  week  or  a  month  most  teachers  prefer  to  select  from 
the  stock  of  ideas  and  words  already  known  to  the  children. 

This  leaves  but  one  new  thing  to  teach,  and  that  is  the 
form  of  the  words.  The  eye  must  now  learn  to  recognize 
what  the  ear  has  long  been  familiar  with.  Thus  they  "pro- 
ceed from  the  known  to  the  nearest  related  unknown,"  and 
there  is  every  reason  to  expect  rapid  advancement. 

However,  this  course  is  not  universal.  There  are  very 
successful  primary  teachers  who  prefer  to  draw  from  some- 
thing entirely  strange  to  the  children  for  the  first  lessons, 
the  argument  being  that  novelty  lends  interest.  Thus,  a 
picture,  new  to  the  class,  may  be  used  as  the  basis  of  the 
first  lessons  in  talking  and  of  the  reading  lessons  that  grow 
therefrom.  Again,  something  from  literature  is  used,  as 
Jack  and  the  Beanstalk,  Cinderella,  The  Three  Bears  or  Hia- 


First  Year  Reading  47 

watha.  For  ourselves,  we  prefer  to  follow  the  familiar  path, 
at  first  using  tangible  objects  as  illustrations.  This  plan 
forms  a  natural  link  between  home  and  school  and  soon 
helps  the  child  to  a  good  list  of  written  or  printed  words  from 
which  he  is  able  to  interpret  the  thought  he  finds  in  sentences. 

It  is  but  a  step  from  the  actual  object  or  act  to  the  pic- 
tured one;  hence,  pictures  may  be  introduced  early  as  the 
basis  of  work.  Any  simple  picture  of  people  or  familiar 
animals,  attractively  grouped  to  suggest  pleasant  thoughts, 
will  be  suitable. 

For  the  first  month,  introduce  not  more  than  one  new 
picture  a  week,  new  ideas  not  being  needed  so  much  at  this 
juncture  as  the  power  to  interpret  familiar  ideas  through 
new  forms  of  familiar  words.  The  sooner  this  is  taught,  the 
sooner  the  child  begins  actual  reading  and  takes  the  first 
steps  towards  independence. 

In  the  last  part  of  the  first  year  a  child  will  easily  read 
many  things  from  the  Mother  Goose  rhymes;  also,  certain 
folk  lore  tales  that  have  much  repetition  in  them,  as,  The 
House  that  Jack  Built,  The  Old  Woman  and  Her  Pig,  The 
Little  Red  Hen,  The  Story  of  Chicken  Little,  and  so  on.  In 
Mother  Goose  rhymes,  the  familiarity  and  the  rhythm  lend 
the  child  material  aid;  in  folk  lore,  the  numerous  repetitions 
and  the  great  dramatic  interest  make  the  reading  easy  for 
him. 

13.  How  Long  Shall  Blackboard  Lessons  Continue?  Answer- 
ing the  above  question  in  general  terms,  we  would  say,  "All 
through  the  first  three  years,  particularly  in  all  schools 
where  books  are  few  and  supplementary  reading  is  scarce." 

However,  those  who  ask  this  question  usually  mean,  "  How 
long  use  the  blackboard  exclusively  for  the  reading  lessons?" 
To  this  we  answer  that  there  is  no  fixed  rule.  In  the  city, 
teachers  often  give  the  lessons  on  the  blackboard  exclusively 
during  the  entire  first  term  of  school.  Others  continue  the 
exclusive  use  of  the  blackboard  for  six  weeks ;  others  for 
four  weeks,  and  still  others  give  some  lessons  from  the  chart 
or  primer  at  the  end  of  the  first  week  and  sometimes  introduce 


48  Public  School  Methods 

the  child  to  both  the  blackboard  and  the  primer  on  his  first 
day  in  school.  We  have  tried  all  these  ways,  and  as  a  result 
of  the  trials  would  suggest  that  the  chart  or  the  primer  be 
introduced  at  the  latest  after  a  few  days.  This  plan  has  a 
certain  advantage  in  that  it  serves  to  satisfy  the  child  and  his 
parents  that  he  is  really  reading.  In  some  places,  especially 
in  less  advanced  localities,  the  blackboard  lessons  do  not 
always  satisfy  the  preconceived  notions  of  what  reading 
should  be. 

However,  the  blackboard  should  certainly  be  used  for  at 
least  half  of  the  lessons  daily  all  through  the  first  year,  because 
results  can  be  accomplished  much  more  quickly  than  by 
adhering  closely  to  either  the  chart  or  the  primer.  By  the 
aid  of  the  board,  the  teacher  can  give  any  amount  of  original 
reading  matter  and  make  the  drill  work  far  more  interesting, 
personal  and  effective  than  from  any  book.  The  use  of  the 
chart  or  primer,  or  both,  in  addition  to  the  board,  lends, 
in  the  minds  of  the  children,  an  air  of  greater  importance 
to  the  lessons  and  furnishes  greater  variety — two  highly 
desirable  additions. 

Certain  things  should  be  borne  in  mind  when  the  child 
is  given  the  chart  or  primer  early: 

(i)  The  chart,  if  prepared  by  the  teacher,  has  the  same 
words  as  those  given  in  the  original  blackboard  lessons,  but 
arranged  in  different  order  and  used  in  different  sentences. 
Thus,  the  best  kind  of  review  is  always  at  hand,  viz.,  the 
same  vocabulary  in  the  form  of  new  stories. 

(2)  When  a  reading  chart  has  been  furnished  by  the  school 
district  it  is  not  as  good  as  one  that  the  teacher  can  make, 
but  it  should  be  used.  In  that  case,  the  teacher  should 
use  the  words  given  on  the  pages  of  the  chart  in  preparing 
her  original  stories  for  the  blackboard,  in  order  that  the 
chart  may  furnish  the  review. 

(3)  Unless  the  teacher  makes  her  own  chart,  it  is  better 
to  leave  the  use  of  the  primer  until  after  the  child  is  quite 
familiar  with  the  first  half  of  the  chart,  to  prevent  the  con- 
fusion arising  from  so  many  different  vocabularies. 


First  Year  Reading  49 

(4)  When  only  the  home-made  chart  is  used,  the  black- 
board stories,  the  chart  and  the  primer  need  cause  no  conflict 
or  confusion,  if  used  alternately. 

14.  Introduction  to  Books.  It  is  a  great  event  for  a  child 
to  own  a  book;  and  when  a  beautiful  new  primer  is  ignored 
for  weeks  by  his  teacher,  school  life  loses  a  good  deal  of  its 
anticipated  joy.  The  book  becomes  an  old  story  and  is  apt 
to  become  much  disfigured  before  it  finds  its  legitimate  use. 
For  these  reasons,  if  the  beginner  comes  equipped  with  his 
primer,  the  teacher  should  take  proper  notice  of  the  fact, 
commenting  pleasantly  upon  its  beauty  and  freshness  and 
the  need  of  being  very  careful  in  handling  it  in  order  to  pre- 
serve its  beauty  and  cleanliness. 

Afterward,  she  may  explain  that  she  is  not  quite  ready 
to  use  it  yet ;  that  there  are  some  other  lessons  to  come  first, 
and  ask  the  privilege  of  keeping  the  book  safely  in  her  desk 
"for  just  a  few  days."  The  "few  days"  must  be  few,  not 
more  than  two  or  three  at  most,  before  the  book  is  brought 
out,  the  first  picture  talked  about,  and  some  words  found 
that  have  already  been  given  on  the  board.  Even  on  the 
first  day,  it  is  better  to  use  the  primer  picture  for  a  talking 
lesson,  if  the  child  seems  too  much  disappointed;  the  great 
thing  on  that  day  being  to  win  confidence  and  make  the 
pupil  feel  at  ease,  so  that  he  will  respond  freely  to  questions 
and  adjust  himself  to  his  new  environment. 

Establish,  the  first  day,  the  habit  of  collecting  the  books 
after  the  lesson  is  done.  Give  the  child  suitable  seat  work 
and  keep  him  so  occupied  that  he  will  forget  that  his  book 
is  not  in  his  own  keeping.  Show  him  exactly  how  to  hold 
his  book  to  the  best  advantage  for  use  and  how  to  preserve 
it  from  defacement.  It  may,  and  probably  will,  take  a  good 
many  repetitions  of  direction  and  encouragement  before 
these  important  habits  are  established. 

15.  Supplementary  Reading.  Any  reading  given  to  the 
child  in  addition  to  that  in  his  regular  reading-book  is  com- 
monly called  supplementary  reading.  This  is  given  to  insure 
greater  proficiency  in  the  ready  recognition  and  pronuncia- 


50  Public  School  Methods 

tion  of  words  and  phrases,  to  promote  greater  efficiency  in 
gathering  thought  from  sentences  and  paragraphs  and  to 
develop   fluency  in  oral  reading. 

In  the  first  year  there  are  various  sources  that  may  be 
drawn  upon  for  this  reading: 

(i)  Original  stories  may  be  made  by  the  teacher  and 
children  together  as  an  outcome  of  the  informal  conversa- 
tional (language)  lessons  upon  such  familiar  and  interesting 
things  as  pictures,  games  and  facts  in  natural  science.  These 
stories  may  be  presented  to  the  class  in  the  form  of  black- 
board reading  lessons  exclusively,  until  the  pupil  is  able  to 
recognize  printed  words  and  sentences  as  easily  as  written 
ones.  Then  these  lessons  may  be  given  wholly  or  in  part  in 
the  form  of  leaflets  prepared  by  the  teacher  by  use  of  the 
hektograph.  These  leaflets  may  or  may  not  precede  the  use 
of  the  primer.  They  are  easier  to  handle,  but  they  are  not 
so  attractive  in  appearance  as  the  book. 

(2)  When  the  district  supplies  several  sets  of  easy  primers, 
they  may  be  used  as  follows:  After  ten  pages  of  the  regular 
primer  have  been  read,  use  ten  pages  from  another  primer 
and  then  ten  from  the  third  primer.  The  regular  primer 
lessons  may  come  in  the  first  reading  period  of  the  day  and 
the  supplementary  reading  be  used  in  the  afternoon.  Some- 
times make  a  change  by  reversing  the  order.  Continue  till 
at  least  three  primers  are  read  through  during  the  first  year 
of  school. 

(3)  When  it  is  impossible  to  get  the  additional  primers  in 
sets,  the  teacher  should  provide  herself  with  two  or  three 
of  the  best  primers.  From  these  she  may  use,  on  blackboard 
and  on  hektograph  leaflets,  all  the  material  needed  to  supple- 
ment the  stories  and  poems  of  the  regular  primer.  This  will 
give  practically  the  same  result  for  the  class,  but  entails 
more  work  upon  the  teacher. 

(4)  From  educational  journals  and  from  magazines  for 
young  children,  short,  easy  stories  and  poems  embodying 
virtually  the  same  vocabulary  as  that  used  in  the  required 
primer  may  be  selected.     Copy  these  upon   the  board  or 


*'-**- 


Painted  for  Public  School  Methods  by  the  Art  Institute.  Chicago. 

'GOOD  MORNING,  LITTLE  RED  RIDING  HOOD,"  SAID  THE  WOLF. 


First  Year  Reading  51 

hektograph  from  time  to  time  and  use  them  for  supplementary 
reading. 

Caution.  The  teacher  must  bear  in  mind  that  from  one 
or  all  of  these  sources  a  large  quantity  of  supplementary 
reading,  suitable  in  grade  and  quality,  must  be  obtained, 
since  it  takes  much  easy  reading  to  make  reading  easy  to  first 
year  pupils. 

16  Preparation  of  a  Lesson.  In  making  up  a  reading 
lesson  (the  one  given  below,  for  example),  let  the  teacher 
try  to  consider  the  following  points:  (x)  It  should  contain 
a  thought  of  value;  (2)  it  should  be  interesting  to  children; 
(3 )  it  should  be  in  dialogue  form,  where  possible ;  (4)  it  should 
be  simple  as  to  vocabulary  and  construction  and  thought, 
and  (5)  it  should  be  full  of  repetitions. 

Suppose  you  have  written  or  found  in  the  reader  the 
selection : 

LITTLE    RED    RIDING    HOOD 

Lesson  I 

Once  upon  a  time  there  was  a  little  girl. 

Her  grandmother  made  a  little  red  hood  for  her. 

Then  her  mother  said,  "  Now  your  name  is  Little  Red 
Riding  Hood." 

One  day  Little  Red  Riding  Hood's  mother  said,  "Your 
grandmother  is  sick.     Take  this  cake  and  this  butter  to  her." 

The  little  girl  put  on  her  red  hood.  She  put  the  cake  and 
the  butter  into  her  little  basket.     Then  she  went. 

Little  Red  Riding  Hood  came  to  the  wood.  She  met  a 
wolf. 

"Good  morning,  Little  Red  Riding  Hood,"  said  the  wolf. 

"Good  morning,"  said  the  little  girl. 

"Where  are  you  going,  my  dear?"  asked  he. 

"I  am  going  to  my  grandmother's  house.  She  is  sick. 
I  have  cake  and  butter  for  her.     It  is  in  this  basket. 

"  I  am  going  there,  too.  You  go  that  way.  I  will  go  this 
way.     Let  us  see  who  will  get  there  first,"  said  the  wotf. 


52  Public  School  Methods 

Little  Red  Riding  Hood  picked  flowers  in  the  woods. 
The  wolf  ran  very  fast.  He  came  to  the  grandmother's 
house.  The  grandmother  saw  the  wolf.  He  jumped  into 
her  bed.     She  ran  for  the  huntsmen. 

Lesson  II 

Little  Red  Riding  Hood  came  to  her  grandmother's  house. 

She  knocked  at  the  door. 

"Who  is  there?"  cried  the  wolf. 

Little  Red  Riding  Hood  thought,  "Grandmother  must 
have  a  cold." 

"It  is  Little  Red  Riding  Hood.  I  have  cake  and  butter 
for  you,  grandmother." 

"  Pull  the  doorstring  and  come  in!"  cried  the  wolf. 

The  little  girl  went  in. 

She  went  to  the  bed. 

"Why,  grandmother,  what  big  arms  you  have,"  she  said. 

"The  better  to  hug  you,  my  dear." 

"And  grandmother,  what  big  ears  you  have!" 

"The  better  to  hear  you,  my  dear." 

"But  grandmother,  what  big  eyes  you  have!" 

"The  better  to  see  you,  my  dear." 

"Oh  grandmother,  what  big  teeth  you  have!" 

"The  better  to  eat  you  up!" 

Then  the  wolf  jumped  from  the  bed. 

He  was  going  to  eat  Little  Red  Riding  Hood. 

Just  then  the  grandmother  and  the  huntsmen  came. 
Bang!     The  huntsmen   killed  the  wolf. 

Method.  Thought  Analysis.  First,  discriminate  clear- 
ly in  your  mind  between  reading  and  learning  to  recognize 
and  pronounce  words.  The  latter,  necessary  as  a  preliminary 
to  reading,  is  not  reading.  It  is  the  thought— the  thought, 
what  does  it  mean — not  what  are  the  words  or  what  the 
inflexion — that  should  be  emphasized. 

Teacher:  How  many  have  heard  the  story  of  Little  Red 
Riding  Hood?  Here  it  is  told  in  print,  beginning  "Once 
upon  a  time,"  for  us  to  read.     Look  at  the  very  first  thing 


First  Year  Reading  53 

that  is  told,  and  look  up  when  you  are  ready  to  tell  it.  Try 
to  sound  out  the  words,  for  you  know  them. 

Pupil:    Once  upon  a  time  there  was  a  little  girl. 

Teacher:  All  sound  out  the  word  (write  hood  on  board) 
that  tells  what  her  grandmother  made  for  her.  Anna  tell 
what  the  book  says  about  it. 

Pupil:     Her  grandmother  made  a  little  red  hood  for  her. 

Teacher:  Look  to  see  what  her  mother  said.  Then  you 
may  be  the  mother  and  say  it.     What  is  n-a-m-e  ? 

Pupil:  Then  her  mother  said,  "  Now  your  name  is  Little 
Red  Riding  Hood." 

Observe  that  the  teacher  frequently  uses  the  words  in  the 
first  part  of  the  sentence  to  be  read,  in  order  to  give  the  child, 
unconsciously,  a  good  start  on  it.  Encourage  the  child  to 
work  out  the  words  for  himself,  but  help  him  to  difficult 
words.  If  the  child  reads  the  fifth  sentence,  for  instance,  in 
a  monotone,  do  not  ask  him  to  emphasize  cake  and  butter, 
but  ask,  "What  should  she  take?"  The  natural  emphasis, 
based  on  the  thought,  will  follow. 

When  familiar  with  the  lesson,  the  children  may  dramatize 
it,  choosing  parts,  reading  from  the  book  or  saying  their  parts, 
and  following  the  text  to  know  what  to  do  and  when  to  do 
it.  The  joy  this  gives,  and  the  rapid  advance  in  ease  and 
expression  that  results,  makes  the  simple  dramatic  rendering 
of  a  reading  lesson  very  valuable. 

17.  Reviews,  (a)  Two  Plans.  Reviews  of  single  words 
and  phrases  should  come  often,  in  order  to  fix  their  form 
indelibly  upon  the  child's  memory  and  so  prevent  hesitation 
and  mistakes  when  the  words  or  phrases  are  encountered 
in  sentences.  Such  reviews  are  merely  word  drills,  but 
they  need  to  be  made  interesting  by  means  of  varying  arrange- 
ment, changing  the  questions  and  plans,  letting  children  take 
turns  in  conducting  the  drills,  using  script  to-day,  print 
to-morrow,  both  the  next  day,  etc. 

Reviews  in  genuine  thought-getting  and  thought-giving 
from  sentences,  which  alone  is  reading,  is  a  very  different 
thing  from  the  mere  pronunciation  of  words.     Back  of  all 


54  Public  School  Methods 

the  words  in  the  sentences  must  be  intelligent  comprehension 
of  the  sentiment  therein  contained.  One  great  help  to  this 
comprehension  is  continuity;  hence,  all  reading  reviews 
should  be  in  the  form  of  connected  sentences  forming  what 
may  appropriately  be  called  a  story,  leading  to  a  definite 
ending  or  conclusion. 

In  the  first  year  the  review  should  take  one  or  the  other 
of  the  following  forms : 

(i)  Reread  a  story  already  more  or  less  familiar  from 
previous  readings.  This  form  may  be  used  to  some  extent, 
but  not  often,  because  pupils  soon  memorize  the  entire  story 
and  read  (?)  it  purely  from  memory.  This  "reading"  from 
memory  is  often  done  even  when  the  children  are  utterly 
unable  to  recognize  the  separate  words  and  phrases  of  their 
story  if  the  order  is  changed  about. 

(2)  Give  the  review  always  as  a  new  lesson,  using  no  new 
words  or  phrases,  but  arranging  those  already  given  so  as 
to  form  an  entirely  new  story.  This  is  the  only  form  to  be 
depended  upon  to  accomplish  the  ends  sought  in  a  review 
lesson,  viz. :  (a)  To  keep  the  interest  in  reading  keen  and 
vivid;  (b)  to  drill  upon  recognition  of  word  and  phrase  forms; 

(c)  to    give    additional   practice   in   thought   interpretation; 

(d)  to  furnish  additional  reading  matter  for  the  class. 

(b)  An  Illustration.  Suppose  the  following  stanzas 
are  the  lessons  that  have  been  read: 

Robin  comes  with  early  spring, 

Dressed  up  in  his  very  best; 
Very  pretty  is  his  suit — 

Brownish  coat  and  reddish  vest. 

"Cheer  up!    Cheer  up!"    Robin  sings; 
"Cheer  up!    Cheer  up!"    all  day  long; 
Shine  or  shower,  all  the  same, 
"Cheer  up!    Cheer  up!"    is  his  song. 

The  following  prose  sentences  constitute  the  review: 
(1)  With  the  early  spring,  Robin  comes.  (2)  He  is  dressed 
up  in  his  very  best.  (3)  His  suit  is  very  pretty.  (4)  It  is  a 
reddish  vest  with  a  brownish  coat.     Robin  sings  "Cheer  up! 


First  Year  Reading  55 

Cheer  up!"  All  day  long,  he  sings  "Cheer  up!  Cheer  up!" 
It  is  all  the  same  in  the  shine  or  in  the  shower.  His  song 
is  "  Cheer  up !     Cheer  up !" 

Reviews  that  are  entirely  suitable  for  first  grade  pupils 
are  more  easily  made  than  found.  They  may  reproduce  the 
same  ideas,  as  in  the  above,  or  the  new  story  may  have  all 
familiar  words  and  phrases  and  yet  bear  no  relation  to  any 
story  previously  given.     Both  kinds  are  needed. 

(c)  Illustrative  Lesson.  The  following  lesson  reviews 
the  words  in  the  sentences  naturally  used  in  the  fall,  such  as 
nest,  home,  birds,  woodpecker,  tree,  high,  squirrel,  besides  the 
simple  common  words  and  expressions,  as  "I  see,"  etc. 

The  thoughts  of  the  lesson  are  (i)  that  the  tree  is  the  home 
of  the  birds  and  the  squirrels,  besides  furnishing  a  play  place 
for  children  (beginning  work  on  forestry);  (2)  that  the  birds 
leave  in  the  fall. 

Such  a  lesson  may  either  be  written  on  the  board  or  on  the 
hektograph.  A  simple  illustration  drawn  by  the  teacher 
would  add  greatly  to  its  value.  Help  as  needed  may  be  given 
as  the  lesson  moves  on.  Children  taking  the  parts  may  be 
frequently  changed. 

Teacher:  The  children  in  this  story  are  swinging  under 
the  old  willow  in  the  fall.  Jack  is  swinging  May.  Look  to 
see  what  they  say.  Now,  May,  you  are  in  the  swing.  Show 
us  how  it  goes.     What  can  you  see? 

May:     Swing!     Swing! 
O,  I  see  a  nest. 

Jack:     Where  ?     Where  ? 

I  can't  see  the  nest. 

May:     Up  high  in  the  tree. 

Jack:     O,  I  see  it. 

It  is  high  in  the  tree. 
Are  there  birds  in  it? 

May:     No,  the  birds  have  gone. 

Jack:     Where  have  they  gone? 

Teacher:     Who  can  tell  where  the  birds  have  gone? 

Teacher:     Now  let's  choose  another  May  and  Jack.     Look 


56  Public  School  Methods 

ahead  to  see  what  to  say  and  say  it  just  as  you  think  May  or 
Jack  would. 

May     Swing  me  high,  Jack. 

Jack:     Swing!     Swing! 

May:     O,  I  see  the  squirrel's  hole. 
Please  swing  me  higher. 

Jack:     Swing!  Swing! 

May:     I  can  see  another  hole. 

It  is  the  woodpecker's  home. 

Jack:     There  are  many  homes  in  the  tree. 

18.  The  Hektograph.  In  the  presentation  of  such  reviews, 
both  the  blackboard  and  hektograph  may  be  used.  When 
the  blackboard  space  is  very  limited  a  hektograph  is  almost 
indispensable,  and,  accordingly,  we  present  a  practical 
recipe  for  making  one.  The  cost  for  material  is  rarely  more 
than  seventy-five  cents. 

(i)  Dissolve  four  ounces  of  gelatine  in  a  pint  of  cold 
water  and  then  add  one  pint  of  glycerine.  Put  the  mixture 
on  the  stove  in  a  double  boiler,  so  it  will  not  burn,  and  when 
it  comes  to  a  boil,  pour  it  into  a  shallow  granite  pan,  eight 
by  twelve  inches  in  dimensions.  Then  put  the  tin  in  a 
level  place  while  the  mixture  cools.  If  gelatine  cannot 
be  obtained,  the  same  quantity  of  good  white  glue  will 
answer  the  purpose,  but  it  will  not  make  quite  so  good  a 
surface. 

If  air  bubbles  form,  take  a  sheet  of  writing  paper  and 
pass  the  edge  slowly  over  the  bubbles.  If  when  cold,  the 
mixture  is  too  hard,  melt  again  and  add  a  very  little  glycerine ; 
if  too  soft,  add  a  little  more  gelatine. 

If  the  surface  ever  becomes  rough  or  discolored,  place 
the  hektograph  over  a  pan  of  water  on  the  stove  and  melt 
it,  then  set  the  hektograph  away  to  cool,  and  it  will  be  as 
good  as  ever. 

Violet  or  black  hektograph  ink  can  be  secured  at  a  drug 
store,  and  a  small  bottle  will  last  for  a  long  time. 

Use  a  coarse  stub  pen  and  unglazed  paper  for  your  original 
copy.     See  that  every  stroke  leaves  a  metallic  luster  when 


First  Year  Reading  57 

dry.  Having  made  your  copy,  press  it  face  down  on  the 
surface  of  the  hektograph,  leave  it  there  one  or  two  min- 
utes, and  then  gently  peel  off  the  paper.  You  will  find 
your  writing  transferred  to  the  hektograph,  and  by  pressing 
clean  sheets  of  paper  evenly  on  the  surface  you  can  take  off 
many  copies  in  a  short  time. 

When  through  using  the  hektograph,  wash  it  immediately 
in  tepid  water,  with  the  hand  or  a  soft  sponge.  Never  leave 
the  surface  dirty. 

TEST  QUESTIONS 

i.  What  are  the  ultimate  purposes  in  teaching  reading? 
What  do  you  consider  the  chief  purpose  in  the  primary 
department?  What  is  the  immediate  purpose  of  the  earliest 
lessons? 

2.  Show  how  any  successful  teaching  of  reading  must 
combine  the  elements  of  the  first  four  methods  mentioned. 

3.  Is  there  any  reason  why  a  pupil  should  know  his  alpha- 
bet in  regular  order  during  his  first  year  in  school?  Is  it 
desirable  that  a  child  ever  should  be  taught  the  alphabet 
thoroughly  in   its  regular  order?     Why? 

4.  Why  are  reviews  so  necessary  in  reading?  For  what 
reasons  is  it  better  that  a  child  should  have  his  first  lessons 
from  the  blackboard  rather  than  from  a  printed  chart  or 
primer  ? 

5.  Write  in  a  perfectly  plain,  large  script,  with  little  or 
no  slant,  five  simple  expressions  such  as  might  be  used  in 
very  early  lessons  in  reading.  In  a  parallel  column  print 
the  same  expressions  as  you  would  use  them  in  such  a  black- 
board exercise  as  is  described  on  page  41. 

6.  Assume  a  small  class  of  beginners  from  whom  you 
wish  to  derive  sentences,  using  an  apple  as  the  subject. 
Write  out  your  part  in  the  second  recitation,  giving  in  detail 
and  in  logical  order  the  questions  you  would  ask,  the  com- 
ments you  would  make  and  expressions  which  you  would 
place  upon  the  board. 


58  Public  School  Methods 

7.  Assume  that  you  have  again  the  same  class  several 
days  later.  Rule  a  half  page  of  your  recitation  paper  to 
represent  the  space  on  a  blackboard,  and  fill  this  with  expres- 
sions so  arranged  as  to  be  used  successfully  in  a  drill  exercise 
in  review.     Tell  how  you  would  conduct  the  drill. 

8.  Show  how  methods  of  teaching  reading  that  are  per- 
fectly satisfactory  in  one  school  may  be  quite  unsatisfactory 
in  another. 

9.  Suppose  that  on  the  first  day  at  school  the  children 
come  provided  with  new  and  attractive  primers  or  first 
readers;  would  you  use  the  books?  If  so,  when  and  in  what 
way?  Have  the  pupils  a  right  to  expect  that  the  books  will 
be  used?  In  whose  possession  should  the  books  be  kept 
when   not   in   use   in   recitation?     Why? 

10.  Discuss  the  teaching  of  capital  letters  and  punctuation 
marks  during  the  first  year  of  school. 


From  the  painting  by  I.ouyot 


YOUNG  FOLK  AT  THE  CANAL 


CHAPTER   THREE 

SECOND  YEAR  READING  AND  PHONICS 

SECOND   YEAR   READING 

1.  Need  of  Reviews.  In  graded  schools,  the  teacher  of 
the  second  year  reading  class,  often  secretly,  and  sometimes 
openly,  blames  the  first  year  teacher  because  the  children 
come  to  her  inadequately  prepared  for  their  new  work. 
This  is  particularly  liable  to  be  the  case  when  the  long  sum- 
mer vacation  intervenes  between  the  close  of  the  first  year's 
work  and  the  beginning  of  the  second. 

All  summer  the  children  have  reveled  in  the  freedom  of 
out-of-door  life,  and  school  and  school  books  have  been  put 
aside  and  forgotten.  As  a  natural  result,  it  is  an  effort  to 
recall  word  forms  and  all  else  that  was  taught  in  the  first 
year,  and  to  the  puzzled  teacher  the  pupils  seem  to  have 
been  promoted  without  good  preparation.  In  most  cases, 
the  new  teacher's  first  judgment  is  both  hasty  and  erroneous. 
The  routine  of  school  life  soon  brings  back  what  had  been 
learned  before  vacation,  and  after  a  few  days  the  work  goes 
smoothly  on. 

The  difficulties  of  the  first  week  could  be  almost  entirely 
obviated  by  having  the  class  review  the  last  third  of  several 
good  first  readers.  This  recalls  the  half-forgotten  vocabulary 
and  lays  a  foundation  for  the  advance  work.  Moreover, 
the  power  to  read  fluently  from  these  familiar  books  gives 
the  pupils  a  confidence  that  enables  them  to  do  justice  both 
to  themselves  and  to  their  former  teacher.  Hence,  it  is 
better,  for  the  first  week,  to  limit  the  reading  to  the  review 
of  primers  and  first  readers.  It  is  also  wiser,  for  the  first  month 
of  the  second  year,  to  use  no  supplementary  reading  matter 
that  is  more  difficult  in  thought,  content,  vocabulary  and  style, 
than  that  found  in  the  last  third  of  the  best  first  readers. 

These  precautions  are  necessary  to  prevent  discourage- 
ment, since  second  readers  are  often  a  long,  hard  step  above 

59 


60  Public  School  Methods 

the  first  readers,  and  are  seldom  graded  so  carefully.  "It 
is  the  first  step  that  costs"  here,  as  elsewhere.  The  first 
month  of  any  grade  is  a  crucial  one  for  the  class  unless  the 
teacher  has  the  wisdom,  tact  and  skill  to  foresee  and  over- 
come obstacles  by  a  judicious  mingling  of  reviews  with  new 
work. 

In  the  best  city  schools,  the  class  is  expected  to  read 
through  at  least  three  primers  or  their  equivalents,  and  one 
or  two  first  readers,  before  they  complete  the  work  of  the 
first  year.  The  first  term  of  the  second  year  the  same  class 
reads  several  first  readers  through  (at  least  three)  before 
beginning  upon  the  second  reader.  The  motive  is  to  secure 
(i)  absolute  certainty  in  vocabulary,  (2)  intelligent  and  accu- 
rate reading,   (3)   confidence,   (4)    fluency. 

With  such  a  preparation,  the  advance  work  is  taken  up 
easily,  and  interest  never  flags.  There  is  no  room  for  dis- 
couragement, because  the  steps  in  the  work,  from  the  first, 
are  continuous  and  even.  It  is  recommended,  therefore, 
that  the  plan  be  followed  as  nearly  as  possible. 

2.  Value  of  Supplementary  Reading  Matter.  To  carry 
out  the  above  suggestions  fully  requires  various  sets  of 
primers  and  first  readers  as  the  property  of  the  school,  in 
addition  to  the  ones  the  pupils  own  individually.  Should 
these  be  lacking  when  the  term  opens,  the  teacher  needs  to 
use  all  legitimate  means  to  secure  them.  These  primary 
readers  are  the  foundation  of  the  library  idea  in  the  minds 
of  the  youngest  pupils.  By  means  of  these  extra  books  the 
taste  for  reading  and  the  habit  of  reading  may  both  be  fairly 
commenced. 

Until  at  least  one  extra  set  of  such  books  can  be  secured, 
the  teacher  will  need  to  provide  the  supplementary  reading 
for  the  class  by  her  own  exertions,  and  largely  from  books 
that  are  her  own  property. 

Caution.  A  teacher  should  be  provided  with  a  copy  of 
every  text-book  that  her  pupils  use,  in  order  not  to  borrow 
from  the  class.  A  child  feels  the  annoyance  of  surrendering 
his  book.     It  makes  him  dependent  upon  his  neighbor,  and, 


Second  Year  Reading  and  Phonics  61 

as  the  result,  neither  child  can  do  so  well.  When  visitors  are 
present,  his  sense  of  politeness  causes  him  willingly  to  yield 
his  book,  but  his  generosity  should  not  be  imposed  upon  daily. 
3.  Need  of  Preparing  Reading  Lessons.  Not  even  a  primer 
lesson  should  be  attempted  without  careful,  previous  prepa- 
ration on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  Said  the  great  writer, 
Harmann,  while  employed  as  a  teacher,  "  I  should  be  ashamed 
to  meet  my  primer  pupils  without  having  looked  at  their 
lesson  myself."  Few  teachers  of  that  day  would  have  agreed 
with  Harmann.  In  fact,  his  remark  would  have  been  looked 
upon,  by  most  people,  either  as  a  huge  joke  or  as  the  utter- 
ance of  a  person  lacking  in  good  sense  and  fit  only  for  ridicule. 
To-day  public  opinion  is  so  changed  that  the  best  educators 
fully  agree  with  Harmann.  Those  who  now  oppose  his 
view  do  so  through  lack  of  knowledge  of  what  the  primary 
children  really  need  in  the  way  of  guidance  and  encourage- 
ment, during  their  early  struggles  with  the  problem  of  learning 
to  read. 

First,  look  through  the  lesson  rapidly,  to  discover  the 
thought  that  the  selection  expresses.  Mentally  decide  on 
some  further  illustration  or  suggestion  to  use  that  will  empha- 
size the  thought  when  the  lesson  is  read.  If  you  trust  to  the 
inspiration  of  the  teaching  moment,  you  are  likely  to  be  lost. 

Then  read  the  lesson  through  slowly  and  thoughtfully, 
noting  the  difficulties  as  they  appear.  Try  to  take  the  child's 
point  of  view  in  deciding  where  the  "hard"  places  are,  and 
the  teacher's,  in  mentally  determining  what  devices  to  use 
in  order  to  help  the  children  to  help  themselves  over  such 
places.  Decide  which  new  words  the  children  are  to  be  aided 
to  get  phonetically,  which  phrases  should  be  reviewed,  what 
suggestive  question  is  to  be  asked  containing  the  difficult 
word,  perhaps  even  which  backward  children  are  to  be  helped, 
and  how.  This  practice  of  definite,  detailed  preparation 
takes  little  time,  and  it  is  the  secret  of  many  an  experienced 
teacher's   success  in  teaching  reading. 

4.  Conditions  Contrasted.  A  child  enters  school  the 
first  year  full  of  vague  hopes  and  fears  of  the  unknown,  but 


62  Public  School  Methods 

the  whole  situation  is  so  novel  that  it  is  full  of  vivid  interest. 
If  he  is  wisely  taught  during  this  year,  he  comes  to  the  end 
with  interest  unabated  and  with  his  happy  spirit  unclouded 
by  the  experiences  of  his  first  school  year.  Otherwise,  he 
looks  forward  to  the  second  year  with  dread,  and  his  new 
teacher's  task  is  doubly  hard  because  of  this  undesirable 
change  in  his  mental  attitude.  No  real  progress  can  be 
made  without  interest;  therefore,  the  second  year  teacher 
must  use  all  her  energies  to  hold  the  interest,  in  the  one 
case,  or  to  restore  it,  in  the  other. 

In  the  first  year,  the  child  is  given  familiar  words  to 
recognize  at  sight.  Whether  the  words  are  of  one  syllable 
or  more  makes  no  difference,  unless  it  is  in  favor  of  the  long 
word.  From  the  very  unusualness  of  its  form,  such  words 
as  butterfly,  sunflower,  goldenrod  and  beautiful,  if  they  happen 
to  have  been  taught,  have  made  a  more  vivid  impression 
upon  the  child's  mind  than  the  most  short  words.  Moreover, 
these  longer  words  make  a  stronger  appeal  to  the  imagination. 
For  both  of  these  reasons  his  memory  easily  retains  them. 
The  one  caution  in  the  early  part  of  the  first  year  is  to  be 
sure  that  the  meaning  and  spoken  form  are  familiar.  The 
word  forms  most  difficult  for  first  year  pupils  to  remember 
are  short  words  that  closely  resemble  one  another,  such  as 
was,  saw,  these,  those,  when,  where.  This  difficulty  often  goes 
over  into  the  second  year,  where  new  words  are  rapidly  added 
to  the  child's  vocabulary,  many  of  them  new  in  meaning 
as  well  as  in  form. 

The  child,  in  the  first  year,  is  kept  almost  entirely  within 
his  own  experiences.  All  the  words  represent  familiar  ideas; 
all  the  sentences  are  short.  In  the  second  year,  new  ideas 
are  constantly  introduced  and  the  sentences  are  made  longer 
by  the  introduction  of  adjective  and  adverbial  phrases  or 
by  the  union  of  two  clauses  hitherto  kept  separate.  He 
now  reads  his  lessons  by  paragraphs  through  continuous 
pages.  Heretofore,  nearly  all  his  reading  has  been  limited 
to  sentences  lightly  connected  and  seldom  filling  more  than 
one  page  as  the  maximum  of  his  hardest  lesson, 


Second  Year  Reading  and  Phonics  63 

He  is  now  expected  to  begin  and  continue  the  independent 
pronunciation  of  new  words  by  means  of  the  more  serious 
lessons  given  in  phonics.  He  is  also  to  prepare  his  reading 
lessons  with  the  minimum  of  assistance  from  his  teacher. 
Previously,  he  has  been  helped  over  all,  or  nearly  all,  the 
hard  places.  Objective  illustrations  are  now  largely  with- 
drawn and  a  long  lesson  must  be  interpreted  with  the  aid  of 
a  single  picture,  or  none  at  all,  unless  the  teacher  meets  the 
difficult  ideas  with  rapid  sketches  upon  the  blackboard  to 
help  him  understand  the  text. 

These  are  only  a  part  of  the  new  experiences  that  confront 
the  second  year  pupil  in  reading,  alone.  They  are  placed 
in  detail  to  call  the  attention  of  the  teacher  to  the  fact  that 
it  is  no  easy  problem  that  faces  the  child  who,  last  year,  was 
little  more  than  a  baby,  and  who,  at  the  most,  is  but  a  little 
older  than  when  so  much  less  was  required. 

All  these  conditions  need  to  be  given  careful  thought. 
The  difficulties  must  be  presented,  one  by  one,  the  easiest  first, 
and  the  new  steps  taken  as  thoroughly  as  in  the  first  year. 

6.  New  Phrases.  New  phrases  should  be  taught  from 
the  blackboard,  that  the  child  may  have  them  to  use  in  oral 
language  work;  also,  that  he  may  surprise  himself  by  rapid 
recognition  when  they  first  occur  in  his  reading.  Recall  the 
ones  given  in  the  first  year  and  add  others  as  rapidly  as  occa- 
sion can  be  made  naturally.  Among  the  new  ones  to  teach 
early  in  the  second  year  are  to-day,  to-morrow,  yesterday, 
as  well  as,  just  as  well  as,  long  ago,  far  away,  far  off,  right  hand, 
left  hand,  near  by,  never,  forever,  one  by  one,  two  by  two,  none 
at  all,  after  a  while,  perhaps,  in  a  little  while,  overhead,  under- 
foot, once  upon  a  time,  immediately,  presently,  and  the  like. 

Train  pupils  to  think  and  read  these  expressions  as  units, 
never  breaking  their  meaning  by  uttering  them  in  single 
parts,  or  hesitatingly.  This,  with  persistent  effort  on  the 
part  of  the  teacher,  will  after  a  while  settle  into  a  fixed  habit 
and  be  of  lifelong  assistance  to  the  child. 

As  he  grows  older,  the  pupil  learns  to  look  ahead  in  his 
reading,  grasping  longer  groups  of  words  at  a  glance.     This 


64  Public  School  Methods 

power  is  almost  invaluable  to  a  person  who  delights  in  read- 
ing and  yet  has  but  limited  time  for  it.  We  recall  a  gentle- 
man who  excited  our  youthful  admiration  by  the  rapidity  and 
ease  with  which  he  mastered  the  contents  of  a  newspaper, 
magazine  article,  or  other  publication.  Ambitious  to  secure 
the  same  ability,  we  watched  him  as  he  read  and  discovered 
that  he  read  by  lines,  the  eyes  not  resting  at  all  upon  single 
words.  Moreover,  the  intelligence  literally  flashed  from  line 
to  line,  gathering  the  ideas  with  almost  incredible  rapidity. 
In  this  case,  long  practice  had  formed  a  most  valuable  habit, 
the  foundation  of  which  is  the  power  to  see  and  think  groups 
of  words  and  ideas  as  units. 

The  power  to  recognize  and  comprehend  words  in  groups 
is  attainable  by  all  people  of  common  ability  and  education, 
and  the  earlier  the  habit  is  formed  the  greater  its  strength 
and  efficiency  in  mature  life.  Hence,  we  urge  the  practice 
of  teaching  first  year  children  to  recognize  familiar  phrases 
and  idiomatic  forms  and  to  treat  them  as  units  in  both  silent 
and  oral  reading.  Moreover,  we  urge  the  review  of  all  such 
idioms  and  word  groups  at  the  beginning  of  the  second  year, 
the  gradual  introduction  of  new  group  forms  and  the  con- 
tinuance of  this  practice  until  all  the  children  cease  to  sepa- 
rate groups  into  words,  except  when  a  new  group  is  presented 
for  the  first  time. 

This  custom  prepares  the  way  for  intelligent  study, 
develops  the  power  of  rapid  thought  and  is  ultimately  a  great 
time-saver.  Better  than  all  else,  perhaps,  it  early  trains 
the  child  to  work  with  sentences  for  the  purpose  of  finding 
the  thought  to  be  expressed  and  saves  him  from  the  fatal 
conclusion  that  mere  word  pronouncing,  phonic  drills,  and 
other  forms  of  preparation  and  drill  are  genuine  reading. 

6.  Incentives.  The  pupil  learns  long  before  he  is  out  of 
the  primary  grades  that  there  is  something  desirable  within 
the  lessons  given  to  him  for  which  it  is  well  worth  while  to 
work,  and  that  learning  to  read  is  the  only  way  by  which  he 
can  help  himself  to  this  desirable  thing.  That  inward  crav- 
ing that  leads   the  little  child  so  persistently  to  beg  older 


Second  Year  Reading  and  Phonics  65 

people  to  tell  or  read  a  story  must  be  turned  to  account  as 
soon  as  he  reaches  the  schoolroom.  It  is  easy  to  keep  him 
interested  in  the  mechanics  of  reading  by  means  of  skill  and 
variety.  But  his  intelligence  is  not  satisfied  by  the  simple 
sentences  he  ought  to  have  at  first.  He  needs  something  of 
a  higher  order;  therefore,  at  the  opening  exercises  in  the  morn- 
ing or  afternoon,  or  as  the  last  exercise  of  the  day,  the  teacher 
should  read  something  in  which  the  child  will  find  real  enjoy- 
ment. The  class  will  listen  with  keen  appreciation  to  The 
Birds'  Christmas  Carol,  The  Story  of  Patsy,  The  Five  Little 
Peppers,  A  Dog  of  Flanders,  The  Child  of  Urbino  and  many 
other  beautifully  written  stories  of  child  life,  so  easy  to 
obtain.  From  such  readings,  the  children  are  unconsciously 
getting  a  standard  of  good  reading,  a  taste  for  beautiful 
imagery  in  style  and  a  liking  for  good  authors. 

The  teacher  should  not  make  selections  from  the  reading 
books  the  child  is  to  use.  That  method  robs  the  books  of 
the  charm  that  novelty  lends  and  deprives  the  teacher  of  a 
powerful  incentive  to  hold  before  the  learner.  For  instance, 
after  some  reading  that  has  been  particularly  enjoyed,  the 
teacher  may  (and  should)  use  the  opportunity  to  say  smil- 
ingly, but  earnestly,  too,  "  There  are  many  books  as  good  as 
this  that  you  can  read  for  yourselves  as  soon  as  you  learn 
how.  And  there  are  charming  stories  in  your  own  readers 
that  you  shall  read  very  soon  if  you  work  well." 

It  is  proper,  also,  to  lead  pupils  to  greater  effort  from  the 
desire  to  please  the  teacher,  their  schoolmates,  the  super- 
intendent, or  other  visitors,  and  the  circle  of  family  friends 
at  home.  There  is  nothing  to  censure  in  this  course,  but 
everything  to  commend.  It  fosters  the  child's  natural 
affection  and  a  certain  innate  hospitality  that  leads  to  a 
desire  to  please  others,  even  at  the  cost  of  trouble  to  himself. 

7.  How  to  Use  Incentives.  To  this  end,  the  teacher  may 
often  call  upon  an  individual  pupil  to  come  out  and  stand 
facing  the  class  and  there  read  a  paragraph  directly  to  them, 
he  consciously  doing  his  very  best  to  read  intelligently  and 
pleasingly.     Little  by  little,  this  method  may  be  extended  to 


6Q  Public  School  Methods 

include  two  paragraphs,  three,  a  whole  page,  and,  at  last,  an 
entire  story  or  poem 

On  Friday  afternoons,  the  entire  reading  period  might 
take  this  form,  on  the  strength  of  its  merit,  were  it  not  that 
children  are  so  sensitive  to  any  real  or  fanciful  slight  that 
the  most  timid  child  would  prefer  to  make  the  effort  to  read 
before  strangers  rather  than  seem  to  be  left  out.  On  such 
occasions,  then,  it  is  wiser  to  choose  some  interesting  story 
or  poem,  quite  familiar  to  the  class,  and  see  that  each  child 
participates  in  the  oral  reading.  This  may  be  followed  by 
one  child  reading  the  whole  of  a  short  lesson  alone.  It  is 
well  to  train  every  member  of  the  class  to  do  this.  With 
this  privilege  in  sight,  the  slowest  or  the  most  careless  child 
will  be  spurred  to  do  his  best  for  the  sake  of  reading  aloud 
to  friends  who  may  be  present. 

Occasionally,  when  the  superintendent  comes  in,  the 
teacher  may  say  before  the  class,  "  Now,  Mr.  Brown,  you 
have  heard  each  one  read  a  little  part  of  the  story.  Would 
you  like  to  hear  one  of  the  class  read  the  whole  story?" 
Probably  Mr.  Brown  will  cordially  assent  and  may  add,  "I'd 
like  to  hear  it  all  read  by  each  one  of  the  class,  but  as  there 
isn't  time  for  that,  may  I  call  on  a  girl  to  read  half  of  it  and 
a  boy  to  read  the  other  half?"  The  wise  teacher  as  cordially 
consents  and  allows  the  superintendent  to  choose  the  readers. 
Another  time  he  may  ask  of  the  same  class,  "Who  will  vol- 
unteer to  read  for  me  to-day  the  story  on  page  twenty?" 
always  being  sure  that  he  chooses  some  lesson  that  the  children 
have  had  a  chance  to  study  and  read  at  least  once  previously. 

For  the  child  that  is  very  slow  to  grasp  new  things,  one 
of  the  best  incentives  is  to  be  permitted  to  read  before  com- 
pany. In  making  this  a  privilege,  rather  than  a  forced 
exercise,  is  where  its  chief  value  as  an  incentive  lies.  Each 
child  is  led  to  realize  that  the  reputation  of  the  teacher  and 
the  class  rests  upon  his  being  ready  to  do  such  things  when 
asked,  ready  to  reflect  credit  upon  himself  and  the  school. 

When  there  is  some  lesson  with  a  great  deal  of  beauty  or 
a  great  deal  of  fun  in  it,  some  child  very  often  naively  remarks, 


Second  Year  Reading  and  Phonics  67 

"  Mamma  would  like  that,"  or  "  I  wish  papa  could  hear  that!" 
Then  is  the  golden  opportunity  for  the  teacher  to  say,  "  Why 
not  take  your  book  home  and  read  it  to  your  father  and 
mother?"  At  the  next  session,  ask  if  this  was  done,  what 
the  parents  said,  etc.,  not  dwelling  long  upon  the  matter, 
yet  long  enough  to  show  real  interest  and  to  strengthen  this 
bond  of  union  between  the  home  and  school. 

Again,  towards  the  latter  part  of  the  second  year,  the 
child  may  be  permitted  to  bring  a  selection  from  home  to 
read  to  the  school.  This  is  the  hardest  test  of  the  year,  but 
greatly  enjoyed.  We  well  remember  a  little  girl  of  the  second 
reader  class  who  read  to  the  pupils  all  of  Clement  Moore's 
immortal  A  Visit  from  St.  Nicholas,  and  read  it  most  delight- 
fully, too.  The  entire  preparation  was  made  at  home  with 
the  assistance  of  her  mother.  After  that,  other  children 
were  permitted  to  read  similar  selections.  The  example  of 
the  first  child  was  an  inspiration  felt  by  all  the  class.  This 
privilege  is  reserved  for  the  latter  part  of  the  second  year, 
because  no  child  can  be  trusted  to  read  well  from  an  unusual 
book  until  he  has  had  sufficient  drill  upon  the  mere  mechanics 
of  reading  to  give  him  a  large  and  well-grounded  written 
vocabulary. 

8.  Teaching  Children  to  Study.  The  first  step  towards 
actual  study  is  the  rapid  recognition  and  correct  under- 
standing of  words,  phrases,  idioms  and  short  sentences  that 
have  previously  been  given.  This  has  already  been  suffi- 
ciently discussed.  The  point  is  to  establish  firmly  the  power 
to  distinguish  between  friends  and  strangers,  i.e.,  to  have 
the  child  able  to  tell  instantly  the  words  he  does  know 
and  to  select  without  any  hesitation  the  ones  he  does  not 
know. 

The  second  step  is  to  create  a  desire  in  the  pupil  to  know 
the  pronunciation  and  meaning  of  new  words  which  he  meets 
in  his  regular  reading  lessons  or  elsewhere.  The  proper 
incentives  to  bring  about  this  end  have  been  discussed. 

The  third  step  is  to  make  the  pupil  self-helpful.  He  now 
has  too  much  acquired  power  for  the  teacher  to  tell  him  all 


68  Public  School  Methods 

the  new  words  and  trust  to  his  memory  alone.  A  common 
rule  of  life  is  that  we  are  apt  to  value  things  in  proportion 
to  the  trouble  it  costs  us  to  get  them.  As  a  general  rule, 
this  applies  to  a  child  as  well  as  to  an  adult ;  hence,  the  child 
must  learn  to  find  out  the  new  words  for  himself,  that  he 
may  appreciate  the  need  of  remembering  accurately  in  order 
not  to  be  obliged  to  do  the  work  over  again. 

Adhering  too  rigidly  to  the  educational  maxim,  "  Never 
tell  a  child  what  he  can  find  out  for  himself,"  may,  and  will, 
lead  to  loss  of  time  and  result  in  dangerous  discouragement. 
As  well  expect  him  to  walk  strongly  and  independently 
the  first  time  he  tries.  All  new  steps  need  to  be  taught 
cautiously  and  such  help  rendered  as  will  give  the  child  con- 
fidence that  he  can  help  himself.  When  there  is  no  previous 
experience  to  use  as  a  basis  of  work,  the  teacher  must  lend 
help  to  introduce  new  ideas  clearly  enough  for  the  child  to 
assimilate  them. 

The  pupil  may  be  led  to  acquire  new  words  for  himself, 
partly  by  joining  units  already  well  known  and  partly  by  being 
taught  to  resolve  new  words  into  their  phonetic  elements, 
omitting  silent  letters  and  sounding  the  ones  used  in  their 
oral  pronunciation,  as  indicated  by  the  diacritical  marks 
given  in  the  book  or  placed  by  the  teacher. 

The  union  of  these  two  methods  in  the  same  lesson  brings 
better  results  than  either  of  them  alone.  Time  is  also  saved 
by  such  a  union  and  a  higher  degree  of  interest  maintained. 

SEPTEMBER 

The  goldenrod  is  yellow; 

The  corn  is  turning  brown; 
The  trees  in  apple  orchards 

With  fruit  are  bending  down. 

The  gentian's  bluest  fringes 

Are  curling  in  the  sun; 
In  dusty  pods  the  milkweed 

Its  hidden  silk  has  spun. 

9.  Application  of  Theory  to  Practice,  (a)  Preparation. 
The  above  poem  is  given  most  easily  in  September.     In  any 


Second  Year  Reading  and  Phonics  69 

other  month  the  illustrative  material  is  hard  to  secure.  The 
teacher  equips  herself  with  sprays  of  goldenrod,  an  ear  of 
corn  in  its  ripened  husk,  some  apples,  a  blue-fringed  gentian 
and  a  supply  of  milkweed  pods  more  or  less  burst  open  and 
showing  the  silk. 

The  best  way  to  secure  the  apparatus  is  by  the  cooperation 
of  the  boys  and  girls  of  the  class.  Say  nothing  about  the 
poem  beforehand,  but  ask  one  child  to  bring  the  next  day 
an  ear  of  ripe  corn  in  the  husk;  another,  some  sprays  of 
goldenrod;  another,  apples;  another,  the  milkweed.  If  the 
fringed  gentian  does  not  grow  in  the  vicinity,  the  teacher 
should  have  a  colored  picture  of  it  to  show  the  class,  or  draw 
one  with  colored  crayons  upon  the  board. 

The  lesson  may  be  in  the  reader,  or  written  clearly  in 
large  script  upon  the  board,  the  children  grouped  so  that 
all  may  see  each  word  without  any  difficulty. 

(b)  Presentation.  The  lesson  may  be  presented  in  two 
ways.  First,  in  the  nature  study  period  have  all  the  speci- 
mens examined  and  carefully  discussed,  using  the  right 
names  as  they  occur  in  the  poem.  This  works  out  all  the 
underlying  ideas  in  the  poem,  and  the  pupil  has  only  the 
new  arrangement  to  trouble  him  when  he  comes  to  the  reading 
lesson.  During  the  first  part  of  the  second  year,  this  mode 
is  the  preferable  one  to  follow,  the  children  having  become 
familiar  with  it  in  the  first  year. 

The  other  mode  is  to  say  nothing  of  the  specimens  until 
the  difficulties  of  the  lesson  show  the  need  of  illustrations. 
This  method  makes  a  variety,  is  more  of  a  surprise,  and  may 
often  be  used  in  the  second  half  of  the  second  year  and  in 
all  the  subsequent  years  when  reading  is  taught  as  a  separate 
lesson. 

(c)  Plan.  "What  month  is  this,  class?"  "What  is 
the  lesson  about?"  "Look  at  the  first  line,  children.  See 
if  you  find  any  new  words."  "The  second  word  is  new?" 
" Never  saw  it  before?"  " Cover  all  but  the  first  four  letters. 
What  word  is  left  now?"  (Class  easily  pronounces  gold.) 
"Look  at  the  next  two  letters.     What  are  they?"     " e-n." 


70  Public  School  Methods 

(Teacher  writes  them  on  the  board.)  "Now  sound  this 
letter  e;  this  one,  n."  "Sound  them  quickly.  What  do 
you  get?"  (Class  pronounces.)  (Teacher  writes  gold-en.) 
"Put  these  two  together.  What  do  you  get?"  "Golden." 
"How  many  letters  are  left  in  the  word?"  "What  are 
they?"  (Writes  rod.)  "What  is  this  word?"  (Adds  rod, 
making  goldenrod.)  "Pronounce  the  whole  word."  "Cor- 
rect." "  How  many  ever  saw  the  goldenrod?"  "  How  many 
can  see  any  now?"  "Mary  may  show  us  all  some  golden- 
rod." "What  color  is  it?"  "Yellow."  "Find  the  word 
yellow."  "  Show  it  to  me."  "  Harry,  read  all  of  the  first 
line."  "All  look  at  the  next  line."  "What  does  this  line 
talk  about?"  "What  does  it  tell  us  about  the  corn?"  "Ole, 
read  the  whole  line."  "Show  us  some  corn  that  is  turning 
brown,  Margaret."  "Examine  the  third  line."  "You  don't 
know  the  last  word,  John?"  "What  is  the  word  just  before 
that  one?"  (Apple.)  "Where  do  apples  grow?"  (On 
trees.)     "Read  the  third  line  as  far  as  you  can."     "The 

trees  in  apple ."      "What  do  we  call  a  great  many  apple 

trees  planted  together  on  purpose  for  raising  the  fruit?"  (If 
no  one  in  the  class  tells  the  word  readily,  waste  no  time  but 
tell  the  word,  having  the  class  pronounce  it  several  times, 
with  eyes  on  the  word.)  "Lulu,  read  the  third  line."  "What 
does  it  tell?"  (The  answer  may  be  "Nothing";  but  is  more 
apt  to  be  "Don't  know,"  or  "Can't  tell.")  "Well,  let  that 
wait  a  little."  "Any  new  words  in  the  fourth  line,  Jennie?" 
"Read  it  then."  "What  are  bending  down?"  (Refer  to 
the  first  line  if  the  child  hesitates.  If  the  answer  is  not  read- 
ily given,  write  the  sentence  "The  trees  in  apple  orchards 
are  bending  down  with  fruit."  Have  it  read  and  then  get 
the  third  and  fourth  lines  read  together  as  printed.)  "  How 
many  have  seen  such  trees?"  "Whose  orchard  were  they 
in?"  "What  made  the  trees  bend  down?"  "Who  will 
read  us  the  first  stanza?" 

Bring  out  the  meaning  and  pronunciation  of  words  in 
the  second  stanza  in  the  same  way  as  in  the  first.  No  doubt 
the  third  and  fourth  lines  will  make  some  trouble  until  the 


Second  Year  Reading  and  Phonics  71 

"hidden  silk"  is  examined  in  the  dusty  pods.  Dusty  and 
pods  may  both  be  new  to  the  class.  Pronounce  these  by 
sound.  Teach  gentian  as  a  sight  word.  The  diacritical 
marking  is  not  impossible,  but  is  so  difficult  that  time  is 
sure  to  be  wasted  upon  it.  Let  the  class  make  out  the  pro- 
nunciation of  the  word  milkweed.  (Cover  the  last  four 
letters.)  "What  word  is  left?"  (Cover  the  word  milk.) 
"What  word  is  left?"  "Say  the  first  part."  "Now  say 
the  second  part."  "Now  say  both  parts  together."  "Who 
has  seen  milkweed?"  (Show  it  to  the  class.)  "Where  does 
it  grow?"  (Show  the  pods.)  "What  are  these  called?" 
"Why  are  they  called  dusty?"  "What  is  the  hidden  silk?" 
(Show  it.)  "What  is  it  for?"  (To  keep  the  seeds  safe  and 
to  act  as  sails  in  distributing  the  seeds  when  ripe.)  "Why 
is  this  plant  called  the  milkweed?"  (Recall  the  sticky  juice 
of  the  stem  when  the  plant  is  growing.) 

The  teacher  drills  on  the  new  words  as  follows:  She 
rapidly  presents  the  goldenrod  and  other  plants  named  in 
the  poem,  calling  on  the  class  to  show  the  word  that  stands 
for  each.  Then  she  reverses  the  plan,  herself  pointing  to 
the  words  and  calling  on  different  children  to  show  the  plants 
or  parts  named. 

The  outline  above  given  indicates  the  line  of  work  needed 
for  such  a  lesson's  presentation.  The  real  reading  is  free 
from  word  teaching  and  consists  of  having  the  children  read 
the  stanzas,  one  after  another,  and  finally  the  lesson  as  a 
whole,  solely  for  the  beauty  and  the  enjoyment  of  it. 
Whatever  lesson  is  given,  the  final  reading  should  include 
the  entire  story,  in  order  to  leave  it  with  the  class  as  a 
whole. 

Caution.  In  all  these  lessons,  the  children  must  be  kept 
alert,  fully  attentive,  with  interest  at  the  white  heat,  by  the 
teacher  working  with  rapidity  and  requiring  rapid  work 
from  the  children.  The  rapid  results  are  gained  by  rapid 
questions  and  rapid  movements,  no  loitering  and  no  loss  of 
time;  not  by  saying,  "Hurry,  children,  hurry!"  The  lessons 
are  too  short  for  this  concentration  to  do  harm. 


72  Public  School  MetJwds 

(d)  Independent  Study.  In  the  second  year,  the  pupils 
may  have  twenty-minute  periods  for  reading  lessons.  These 
should  be  made  to  cover  the  review  of  such  portions  of  pre- 
vious lessons  as  the  present  lesson  depends  upon,  the  real 
reading  of  the  lesson  previously  prepared,  and  during  the 
last  three  or  four  minutes,  the  assignment  and  preparation 
of  the  next  lesson.  After  the  children  have  had  this  assist- 
ance they  are  able  to  work  alone,  to  quite  an  extent,  on  the 
lesson  when  at  their  seats. 

In  the  last  part  of  the  second  year,  the  lesson  may  be 
assigned  for  the  next  day,  the  children  preparing  it  as  best 
they  can  without  help.  "When  they  come  to  the  class,  the 
teacher  requires  each  sentence  of  the  first  paragraph  read 
silently,  children  reporting  words,  if  any,  which  they  were 
not  able  to  make  out  for  themselves  or  whose  meaning  they 
failed  to  understand.  These  are  quickly  disposed  of  and  the 
oral  reading  is  required,  the  silent  reading  always  preceding, 
to  prevent  mistakes  in  pronunciation  and  interpretation. 

Caution.  The  silent  reading  holds  the  attention  to  the 
thought,  but  no  carelessness  in  word  calling  should  be  per- 
mitted, even  when  the  thought  is  made  clear  by  clever  sub- 
stitutions of  synonymous  words  and  expressions.  Such 
substitution  begets  a  habit  of  carelessness  that  is  liable  to 
follow  the  child  all  through  his  lessons.  It  is  far  better  to 
go  a  little  more  slowly  and  require  words  and  phrases  to  be 
given  with  the  same  accuracy  as  the  thought.  To  be  exactly 
right  is  far  more  beneficial  and  saves  much  future  trouble 
/or  the  teachers  of  the  higher  grades. 

10.  Syllabication.  The  work  in  syllabication,  if  carried 
on  as  indicated  in  the  lesson  on  September,  will  soon  give  the 
child  the  power  to  see  the  parts  easily,  and  such  words  as 
sunshine,  grandfather,  childhood,  buttercup,  sidewalk,  horse- 
shoe, dandelion,  redbreast,  will  be  quickly  mastered  without 
aid. 

11.  Expression  in  Reading.  Correct  expression  in  reading 
is  dependent  upon  the  following:  (i)  ability  to  pronounce 
words  correctly  and  to  utter  phrases  smoothly  and  unhesi- 


Second  Year  Reading  and  Phonics  73 

tatingly;  (2)  understanding  the  sentences;  (3)  full  sympathy 
with  what  is  to  be  read,  i.e.,  merging  one's  identity  with 
that  of  the  author;  (4)  the  desire  to  interest  others  in  what 
is  read;  (5)  freedom  from  self-consciousness;  (6)  natural 
tones. 

"Whenever  and  wherever  these  conditions  are  fully  estab- 
lished there  will  be  expressive  reading.  Children  should 
not  be  constantly  urged  to  "  emphasize  the  word  bird,"  to 
"stop  at  the  period,"  to  "give  the  rising  inflection,"  or  to 
do  anything  of  the  kind.  The  results  can  be  secured  by 
proper  questioning  as  to  the  meaning,  getting  the  child  fully 
interested  and  then  remarking,  "  Now  read  it  so  we  shall 
all  understand  it  as  you  do."  If  there  is  still  a  stilted  or 
unnatural  style  of  reading,  ask  the  child  to  look  at  you  and 
tell  the  sentence  until  he  brings  out  the  meaning  clearly  and 
with  naturalness  of  tone  and  manner.  Then  return  to  the 
original  request  and  have  the  sentence  read  as  spoken. 

The  best  models  of  expression  may  be  secured  from  the 
children  themselves  when  at  play  and  unconscious  of  being 
noticed.  It  is  sometimes  well  to  note  some  of  the  sentences 
and  use  them,  later,  at  a  drill  period,  to  secure  certain  tones 
and  inflections. 

Cautions.  (1)  Leave  all  terms  relating  to  the  science  of 
reading,  as  emphasis,  inflections,  modulations,  pitch,  etc., 
for  later  years.  The  aim  in  the  primary  grades  is  to  secure 
naturalness  and  fluency  in  the  art  of  reading  simple  matter 
suited  to  the  comprehension  of  the  children,  and  can  best 
be  realized  by  omitting  all  technical  terms. 

(2)  Do  not  attempt  to  secure  correct  expression  by  requir- 
ing pupils  to  imitate  you  or  their  classmates.  That  makes 
children  dependent  instead  of  self-reliant,  and  turns  them  into 
parrots  instead  of  thinkers.  Secure  the  right  feeling  and 
sentiment  and  "good  expression  need  not  be  referred  to; 
it  will  take  care  of  itself." 

(3)  Make  criticisms  in  such  a  friendly,  matter-of-course 
way  as  to  render  it  impossible  for  the  pupils  to  feel  hurt 
thereby. 


74  Public  School  Methods 

12.  Rules  for  Criticism.  The  general  rule  should  be 
never  to  interrupt  a  pupil's  reading  for  the  purpose  of  mak- 
ing corrections.  With  children  in  primary  grades,  however, 
this  rule  must  often  be  violated  or  else  much  valuable  time 
will  be  lost.  To  illustrate,  suppose  the  child  has  a  paragraph 
of  several  sentences  to  read  and  in  the  first  part  of  the  first 
sentence  miscalls  a  word.  The  teacher  waits  until  the  entire 
paragraph  is  read  and  then  asks,  "What  did  you  call  the 
second  word  in  the  first  sentence?"  The  reader  has  entirely 
forgotten  that  and  the  other  errors  made.  Hence,  in  our 
judgment,  in  such  a  case,  it  is  wiser  to  interrupt  when  the 
error  is  made,  saying  pleasantly,  "Wait  a  moment,  please. 
What  did  you  call  that  second  word?"  Have  the  error  cor- 
rected without  any  ado  and  then  say,  "Now  we  know  the 
word.  Please  begin  once  more."  By  this  means  the  child 
is  more  apt  to  remember  the  help  given,  because  it  is  given 
at  the  moment  it  is  needed,  and  is  able  to  go  on  smoothly, 
without  experiencing  any  embarrassment  from  the  inter- 
ruption. 

Older  pupils  are  able  to  apply  the  correction  to  the  right 
place,  and  from  rapid  growth  are  apt  to  be  more  nervous 
and  self-conscious  than  are  primary  pupils  who  have  been 
treated  courteously  ever  since  entering  school.  For  these 
reasons,  with  pupils  above  the  primary  grades,  it  is  best  to 
permit  the  paragraph  to  be  finished  without  any  interruption 
for  corrections. 

13.  Corrections  by  Pupils.  Having  pupils  correct  errors 
made  by  others  of  the  class  often  results  in  such  angry  feeling 
that  many  superintendents  instruct  their  teachers  never  to 
permit  this.  In  our  judgment,  there  is  nothing  wrong  in 
the  practice  in  itself.  When  trouble  arises,  it  is  wholly  due 
to  mismanagement.  Children  are  allowed  to  snap  fingers 
or  wave  hands  frantically  in  the  air  to  attract  the  attention 
of  the  teacher,  and  to  shout,  "She  called  of  for,"  or  some- 
thing like  that.  Such  demonstrations  and  corrections,  made 
in  offensively  triumphant  tones,  always  arouse  anger  and 
should  not  be  tolerated.     Besides,  because  of  the  utter  lack 


Second  Year  Reading  and  Phonics  15 

of  refinement  and  sympathy,  it  harms  the  would-be  critic 
more  than  the  one  criticised. 

There  is  a  better  way  to  do  these  things.  The  teacher 
should  educate  the  pupils  in  the  spirit  of  helpfulness  in  the 
first  year  and  continue  it  all  the  way  along  the  grades.  Thus, 
"Mary  was  out  of  school  yesterday  and  may  not  know  all 
the  words  we  had ;  so  I  want  you  to  listen  very  carefully  and 
be  ready  to  help  her  if  she  needs  it."  When  Mary  hesitates 
upon  a  word,  hands  are  raised  quietly,  and  the  teacher  simply 
says,  "Frank  may  help."  Frank  gives  the  word,  Mary  pro- 
nounces it  after  him,  and  the  work  goes  on  quietly  and 
pleasantly. 

To  be  ready  to  help  is  the  great  motive  kept  before  the 
class  constantly,  to  hold  their  attention  closely  to  the  one 
reading  and  to  keep  them  ready  to  continue  the  reading, 
when  called  upon,  without  the  loss  of  an  instant  of  time. 

Observe  another  point:  Children  should  be  trained  to 
understand  that  criticism  is  not  limited  to  finding  mistakes 
in  the  calling  of  words,  but  that  the  greater  criticism  is  in 
telling  if  the  thought  and  feeling  are  properly  brought  out. 
We  remember  a  blackboard  lesson  with  first  year  pupils. 
One  of  the  sentences  was  a  little  more  intricate  in  its  meaning 
than  anything  the  class  had  had.  There  was  no  difficulty 
with  words,  however,  and  Jack  read  the  sentence  clearly  and 
confidently.  "How  many  liked  Jack's  reading?"  asked  the 
teacher,  and  all  hands  were  raised  except  that  of  thoughtful, 
sensitive  little  Charlie.  "Didn't  you  like  it,  Charlie?"  asked 
the  teacher.  Charlie  flushed  from  feeling  that  he  stood  alone 
against  all  the  others,  but  said  bravely,  "Not  quite,  Miss 
White."  "Why  not?"  "Well,"  the  little  fellow  stammered, 
"I  liked  the  way  Jack  read,  only  he  made  it  mean  this"  and 
he  read  it  Jack's  way.  "And  what  do  you  think  it  means, 
Charlie?"  encouragingly  queried  Miss  White.  Whereupon 
Charlie  replied,  "I  think  it  means  this"  and  read  it  to  bring 
out  the  meaning  as  he  understood  it.  His  alone  was  the 
true  interpretation,  although  the  other  nine  of  the  group 
had  not  perceived  it. 


76  Public  School  Methods 

These  children  were  but  six  years  old,  and  this  is  a  true 
incident,  given  merely  to  show  that  the  higher  forms  of 
criticism  are  possible  to  young  children.  We  do  not  claim 
that  all  children  could  be  made  like  Charlie,  for  all  do  not 
have  his  fine  appreciation  of  shades  of  meaning.  But  we  do 
claim  that  much  can  be  done  for  primary  grades  and  that 
children  may  be  trained  to  criticise  one  another's  work 
without  a  particle  of  ill-feeling. 

14.  Directions  to  Give  Pupils,  (i)  Stand  erect,  with  shoul- 
ders thrown  back,  when  you  are  to  read  aloud. 

(2)  Hold  your  book  in  the  left  hand,  as  far  from  the  eyes 
as  you  can  see  easily,  and  low  enough  not  to  hide  the 
mouth. 

(3)  Be  sure  that  you  can  pronounce  all  the  words,  and 
know  the  meanings  of  the  sentences  before  you  try  to  read 
to  others.  Be  sure,  too,  that  you  have  a  full  breath  before 
you  try  to  read. 

(4)  Read  loudly  enough  to  be  heard  easily  by  all  those 
who  are  listening  to  you. 

(5)  Read  slowly  enough  so  that  each  word  may  be  heard 
distinctly. 

(6)  Your  reading  is  good  when  every  one,  without  looking 
on  the  book,  understands  and  enjoys  what  you  read. 

The  above  rules  are  simple  enough  for  the  youngest  readers 
to  understand  and  follow.  They  are  to  be  taught  by  the 
teacher's  example  and  by  enforcing  them  fully  at  each  lesson, 
until  to  follow  them  becomes  "second  nature." 

Violations  of  these  rules  may  and  should  be  corrected, 
and  obedience  to  them  may  be  given  as  reasons  why  any 
pupil's  reading  may  be  called  "good." 

16.  Punctuation  and  Reading.  As  in  the  first  year, 
teachers  should  carefully  refrain  from  giving  the  idea  that 
punctuation  controls  needed  pauses.  On  the  contrary,  that 
pauses  depend  solely  upon  the  meaning  of  what  is  read 
should  be  emphasized.  The  use  of  the  period  and  question 
mark  should  be  reviewed  and  the  use  of  quotation  marks 
taught  as  an  incident  to  the  reading  drill. 


Second   Year  Reading  and  Phonics  77 

(a)  Illustration.  "Cheep!  Cheep!"  said  the  little 
birds  in  the  nest.  "We  are  hungry,  hungry."  "Sweet! 
Sweet!"  called  the  mother  bird  from  a  leafy  branch  near  by. 
"  Be  good,  my  dears.  Be  good.  Mother  will  soon  bring  you  a 
worm."  Then  the  little  birds  in  the  nest  again  said,  "Cheep! 
Cheep!"  But  this  time  their  "Cheep!  Cheep!"  meant,  "We 
will  be  good,   mother,   dear.     Hurry  back  with  the   worm!" 

After  the  new  words  have  been  disposed  of  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  lesson,  the  teacher  calls  the  attention  of  the  class 
to  the  first  paragraph.  "Who  were  talking?"  "The  little 
birds  in  the  nest."  "What  did  they  say  at  first?"  "Cheep! 
Cheep!"  "What  did  they  say  next?"  "We  are  hungry, 
hungry."  "How  many  noticed  these  marks?"  (pointing  to 
the  first  quotation  marks).  "What  words  are  inside  of 
these?"  "Cheep!  Cheep!"  "See  if  you  can  find  other 
marks  like  these  in  the  first  paragraph."  "What  words  do 
the  others  enclose?"  "Who  said  those  words?"  "Were  the 
birds  talking  all  the  time?"  (Get  the  fact  that  some  one  is 
telling  a  story  about  the  birds  and  at  times  says  just  what 
the  birds  say.)  Question  similarly  on  the  other  sentences, 
bringing  out  each  time  that  these  marks  show  every  time 
they  are  used  exactly  what  the  birds  say.  The  teacher  gives 
the  name  quotation  marks,  having  the  class  repeat.  She 
writes  the  new  name  on  the  board  in  connection  with  the 
quotation  marks,  and  leaves  it  there  for  a  day  or  two  to 
help  the  class  remember  the  name. 

(b)  Drill.  "  Harry,  read  what  the  little  birds  say  first." 
"What  shows  you  just  how  much  to  read?"  "What  is  the 
next  thing  the  little  birds  say?"  "How  do  you  know  just 
how  much  they  said,  Emily?"  "Find  the  next  quotation 
marks."  "Who  talks  this  time,  Susie?"  "Tell  what  the 
mother  bird  says  here"  (pointing).  "Look  through  the 
paragraph  and  find  what  else  the  mother  bird  says."  "  Read 
all  she  says  in  this  place."  "Show  the  quotation  marks, 
John."  (Follow  a  similar  plan  with  the  third  quotation, 
leading  the  class  to  understand  that  the  quotation  marks 
each  time  show  us  just  how  much  the  birds  said.) 


78  Public  School  Methods 

16.  Rules  for  Capitals.  Constantly  review  the  rules  given 
in  the  first  year,  viz. :  All  sentences  and  names  of  people 
and  places  begin  with  capitals.  Add  to  these  the  rules: 
Each  line  of  poetry,  the  names  of  the  days  of  the  week  and 
the  names  of  the  months  begin  with  capitals ;  but  the  names 
of  the  seasons  do  not.     Teach  each  item  thoroughly. 

Teach  the  above  rules,  informally,  in  connection  with  the 
reading  drills,  using  a  plan  similar  to  that  suggested  for  the 
first  year.  Introduce  but  one  difficulty  at  a  time.  Call 
attention  to  the  capitals  when  writing  sentences,  also  when 
the  class  use  their  books.  Any  second  year  class  can  accom- 
plish with  ease  all  the  work  indicated,  if  the  teacher  helps  a 
little  daily.  Many  classes  are  able  to  do  much  more.  Better 
teach  thoroughly  the  most  important  rules  than  to  attempt 
the  more  intricate. 

17.  Poetry.  In  the  second  year,  the  children  should  have 
poems  as  a  third  part  of  their  reading.  Owing  to  the  greater 
vocabulary,  they  will  now  be  able  to  read  something  much 
better  than  Mother  Goose  jingles  and  rhymes.  If  their 
readers  do  not  supply  enough  selections,  the  teacher  should 
copy  desirable  poems  and  let  the  class  read  from  the  black- 
board or  leaflets.  The  craving  for  rhythm  is  so  strong  in  a 
child  that  to  withhold  good  poetry  from  the  primary  grades 
is  a  serious  thing.  In  addition  to  the  rhythm,  the  child  gains 
from  poetry  a  large  and  valuable  addition  to  his  vocabulary 
and  many  helpful  lessons  in  conduct,  besides. 

18.  Poems  Suitable  for  Second  Year.  In  these  days  we 
may  almost  say,  "Their  name  is  legion,"  when  speaking  of 
really  good  poems  for  children  of  this  grade;  hence  we  shall 
name  as  types  but  a  few  of  the  many.  Tennyson's  Cradle 
Song;  Celia  Thaxter's  Spring;  Mrs.  Coonley-Ward's  Christmas 
Bells;  Elizabeth  Prentiss's  Little  Kitty;  Sleep,  Baby,  Sleep 
(from  the  German) ;  Mrs.  Child's  Who  Stole  the  Bird's  Nest? 
Helen  Hunt  Jackson's  September;  Edith  M.  Thomas's  Talking 
in  Their  Sleep;  Mrs.  Miller's  Hang  Up  the  Baby's  Stocking; 
Maud  Wyman's  //  /  Knew;  Eugene  Field's  Little  Boy  Blue; 
Lord  Houghton's  Lady  Moon;  Lucy  Larcom's  Little  Brown 


Second  Year  Reading  and  Phonics 


79 


Thrush;  Lucy  Wheelock's  Song  of  the  Lilies;  Frank  Dempster 
Sherman's  Daisies;  Helena  Jelliffe's  Clovers;  George  Cooper's 
Frogs  at  School;  George  MacDonald's  The  Baby;  Stevenson's 
The  Swing;  Jean  Ingelow's  Seven  Times  One,  and  Phoebe 
Cary's  Suppose,  My  Little  Lady. 

Some  of  the  above  are  more  simple  than  others  and  such 
should  be  used  in  the  early  part  of  the  year.  However,  all 
in  this  list,  and  many  other  beautiful  and  appropriate  poems, 
may  easily  be  read  from  the  blackboard  or  hektograph  leaves 
before  the  class  begins  the  third  reader. 

19.  Sources  from  Which  to  Draw.  Among  the  best  graded 
collections  of  timely  poems  for  children  are  Songs  of  the 
Treetop  and  Meadow,  Public  School  Publishing  Company, 
Bloomington,  111. ;  Graded  Memory  Selections,  Educational 
Publishing  Company;  and  Nature  in  Verse,  Silver  Burdett  & 
Co. 

In  addition  to  the  above  col- 
lections, teachers  will  find  pub- 
lished in  our  leading  educational 
papers  a  great  many  beautiful 
poems  adapted  to  the  primary 
grades.  Then,  too,  many  valua- 
ble gems  of  verse  are  published 
in  the  best  family  papers  and  in 
children's  magazines. 

20.  Supplementary  Reading. 
Such  pleasing  poems  will  add  a 
most  desirable  portion  of  the  sup- 
plementary reading  needed  in  the 
second  grade.  During  the  first 
term,  to  bridge  the  chasm  between 
the  usual  first  and  second  read- 
ers, use  the  last  third  of  several  illustration  by 
good   first   readers.     If   it    proves  grade    pupil:    the     lion 

f  ,       STEPPING    ON    THE     MOUSE. 

impossible  at  first  to   get  enough 

of  these  to  supply  the  class,  then  the  teacher  should,  by  aid 

of  the   hektograph,  prepare  enough  leaflets  to   supply  each 


80 


Public  School  Methods 


member  of  the  class  with  one.  She  may  also  copy  stories 
from  children's  magazines  in  the  same  way.  Excellent 
selections  are  often  to  be  found  in  Our  Dumb  Animals 
and  in  publications  of  the  Audubon  Society,  and  even  at 
times  in  the  family  newspaper. 

Supplementary  reading,  such  as  The  Lion  and  the  Mouse, 
composed  and  illustrated  by  a  third  grade  class  for  a  second 
grade  class,  is  a  great  aid  in  introducing  matters  considered 
important  by  the  teacher,  but  not  contained  in  the  regular 
reading  lesson — as  opportunities  for  dramatization,  for  nature 
study,  or  for  celebration  of  the  holidays. 

THE    LION    AND    THE    MOUSE 

Players.     Lion  and  mouse. 
Scene.         In  the  woods. 
Action.       The  lion  sleeps. 

The  mouse  plays  around.     She  goes  under  the 
lion's  paw. 

The  lion  wakes. 


Scene  I 

Lion.  G-r-r-r! 

Who  is  under  my  paw? 
Mouse  (in  a  squeaky  voice). 

It  is  I,  Mr.  Lion. 
Lion  (in  a  roaring  voice). 

Oh,  it  is  you,  little  mouse! 

I  shall  eat  you  up.     G-r-r-r! 
Mouse.      Oh,  please  don't  eat  me  up! 

I  would  not  be  a  mouthful  for  you. 
Lion.         Ha!     Ha!     That  is  true. 

You  may  go. 
Mouse.       Thank  you !     Thank  you ! 

I  will  help  you,  some  time. 
Lion.  Ha!     Ha!     Ha!     You  help  me? 

Ha!     Ha!     Ha! 


Second  Year  Reading  and  Phonics 


81 


Scene  II 

Scene.        In  the  woods.     The  lion  caught  in  a  net. 
Action.       He  roars !     He  tries  to  tear  the  net.     He  cannot. 

The  mouse  hears  him. 
Mouse.       Kind  lion,    you   helped   me   once.     I    will   help 
you  now. 

I  will  gnaw  your  net. 


Jfc^ 


ILLUSTRATION    BY    THIRD    GRADE    PUPIL".     THE    LION    IN    THE    NET 


Action.      The  mouse  gnaws  and  gnaws  and  gnaws. 

The  lion's  net  drops. 

He  bounds  away. 
Lion.  You  have  helped  me,  little  friend.     I  thank  you. 

21.  Myths,  Fables  and  Legends.  Should  it  happen  that 
the  second  readers  used  by  the  school  are  deficient  in  the 
permanent  literature  found  in  the  forms  of  fable  and  myth, 
then  selections  may  be  presented  in  the  same  way  as 
poems. 

Among  the  fables  and  myths  suitable  for  this  grade  are 
The  Tortoise  and  the  Hare,  The  Wind  and  the  Sun,  The  Crow 
and  the  Pitcher,  Belling  the  Cat,  The  Kid  and  the  Wolf,  The 
Sunflower  Myth  (Clytie),  Legend  of  the  Bluebird,  Legend  of 
the  Aster. 


82  Public  School  Methods 

Good  collections  of  fables,  myths,  legends  and  standard 
fairy  tales  are  published  by  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  Educational 
Publishing  Company,  A.  Flanagan  Company,  The  Orville 
Brewer  Publishing  Company  (all  of  Chicago),  and  others. 
Most  of  these  collections  are  inexpensive. 

22.  Amount  of  Reading  Required.  The  general  rule  is 
to  have  second  year  pupils  review  the  latter  part  of  several 
good  first  readers  and  complete  the  reading  of  at  least  three 
good  second  readers  or  their  equivalents.  The  safe  rule 
upon  which  to  base  promotions  is  to  be  sure  that  the  pupils 
are  able  to  read  easily,  intelligently  and  fluently  all  the 
stories  and  poems  found  in  their  second  readers,  and  also 
corresponding  material  drawn  from  other  sources  and  pre- 
sented on  the  blackboard  or  as  hektograph  leaflets.  Then 
they  may  pass  easily  to  the  third  reader. 

23.  How  to  Use  the  Readers.  They  who  make  a  series 
of  school  readers  take  incredible  pains  to  grade  the  vocabu- 
lary as  carefully  as  may  be,  in  order  that  the  pupil  may  find 
it  an  easy  and  happy  experience  to  read  the  series  from  the 
beginning  to  the  end.  Some  authors  succeed  remarkably 
well  in  this  grading,  others  but  indifferently.  Authors  offer 
also  a  brief,  concisely  written  preface  to  help  teachers  use 
their  books  with  success  for  themselves  and  their  pupils. 
And  to  what  end?  As  a  matter  of  fact,  many  teachers 
never  read  the  prefaces,  and  ignore  all  the  authors'  attempts 
to  ease  the  burden  of  the  class  through  careful  grading. 
Instead,  lessons  are  selected  "to  suit  the  season,"  "to  please 
the  children,"  "to  help  the  nature  study  lessons,"  and  for 
many  other  purposes.  Being  read  out  of  the  expected  order, 
the  chain  of  preparation  is  broken  and  the  class  is  beset  by  a 
hundred  difficulties  that  might  have  been  prevented  had  the 
prefaces  been  carefully  studied  and  the  lessons  presented  in 
the  sequence  planned. 

The  true  way,  we  believe,  is  to  profit  as  much  as  possible 
by  the  helps  that  the  authors  have  painstakingly  provided. 
Suppose  the  class  reads  the  Christmas  story  before  Christmas 
arrives;  what  matter?     Any  selection  worthy  to  have  a  place 


Second  Year  Reading  and  Phonics  83 

in  a  reading  book  should  be  worth  reading  more  than  once. 
And  the  charm  of  a  good  Christmas  story  grows  with  repeti- 
tion. The  truth  is,  many  teachers  seem  almost  to  fear  to 
give  a  story  or  a  poem  for  a  second  reading,  forgetting  that 
to  children  the  familiar  stories  are  the  dearest  stories. 

PHONICS    FOR    FIRST    TWO    GRADES 

24.  A  Separate  Study.  Keep  the  reading  period  for  the 
undisturbed  pleasure  of  genuine  reading.  The  work  in  phon- 
ics should  be  kept  apart  from  the  reading  lesson  proper, 
especially  during  the  first  year  in  school.  Gradually,  through 
the  training  in  phonics,  the  pupils  gain  ability  to  make  out 
words  for  themselves,  largely  by  trying  the  drill  words  and 
phonograms  (written  or  printed  representations  of  sounds) 
on  the  new  words  they  meet  in  silent  reading. 

25.  Training  Ear  and  Tongue,  (a)  Training  the  Ear. 
Use  the  Sharp  Ears  game  ("  spelling  by  sound, "  for  pupils 
to  recognize  and  pronounce  words).  This  is  ear  training. 
(See  Suggestive  Lesson  One,  Section  30.)  The  teacher  spells 
by  sound  the  following: 

(1)  Phonetic  names  of  familiar  objects  in  plain  sight  in 
the  room,  which  children  may  point  to  or  touch;  as,  chalk, 
desk,  wall. 

(2)  Phonetic  names  of  actions  which  children  may  per- 
form; as,  clap,  stand,  sit,  bow,  run. 

(3)  Phonetic  names  of  parts  of  the  body,  which  children 
may  readily  touch;  as,  lip,  teeth,  cheek,  knee,  toe,  etc. 

(4)  Phonetic  names  of  pieces  of  wearing  apparel;  as, 
cap,  hat,  shoe,  dress,  waist. 

(5)  Phonetic  names  of  colors ;  as,  red,  green. 

(6)  Phonetic  names  of  substances;  as,  glass,  tin. 

All  of  the  foregoing  should  be  in  sight ;  now  give  exercises 
on  things  out  of  sight. 

The  Wonder  Box  is  played  by  giving  phonetic  names  of 
objects  (toys)  which  are  concealed  in  a  box.  The  teacher 
spells  by  sound  the  name  of  one.  A  child,  recognizing  the 
name,  whispers  it  to  the  teacher,  and  is  then  permitted  to 


84  Public  School  Methods 

take  the  object  from  the  box  and  show  it  to  the  class.  In 
the  box  may  be  placed  a  doll,  ball,  knife,  top,  a  pin,  a  nail, 
a  cone,  and  such  toys  as  a  sheep,  a  duck,  a  tree,  etc. 

(8)  Phonetic  names  of  any  animals  or  objects  may  be 
used;  as,  pig,  cow,  rose,  stone,  cup. 

(9)  Give  phonetically  the  initial  letters  of  the  children's 
Christian  names,  and  when  a  child  hears  "his  sound"  let 
him  rise  at  his  desk  or  come  to  the  teacher.  Thus,  Alice's 
sound  is  a;  Bertha's,  b;  Cora's,  c' .  When  several  children 
have  the  same  sound,  as  Delia,  Dan,  Donald,  all  stand  when 
the  sound  d  is  given.  As  soon  as  children  recognize  each 
other's  "initial  sounds,"  the  teacher  may  use  this  device: 
"Who  can  bow  to  some  child  whose  sound  is  e?"  Then  a 
volunteer  is  named  and  he  bows  to  Edward,  or  Emma. 

(10)  Short,  imperative  sentences  may  be  given;  as, 
T-ou-ch  y-ou-r  b-oo-k.  In  such  sentences  the  child  performs 
the  action,  then  repeats  the  sentence.  This  differs  from 
(2)  only  in  degree.  It  is  harder  to  hold  in  mind  several  words 
than  only  one. 

(b)  Training  the  Tongue.  To  train  the  tongue,  have 
the  children  spell  by  sound  part  of  the  words  in  (a).  The 
words  should  be  spelled  with  the  teacher  and  without  her, 
in  concert,  and  individually.  Encourage  children  to  attempt 
words  for  themselves;  to  call  each  other  by  initial  sounds; 
to  give  names  of  objects  by  sound.  To  do  things  is  easier 
and  more  interesting  than  to  spell  words  by  sound,  so  train- 
ing the  tongue  is  harder  and  not  so  enjoyable  as  the  various 
applications  of  training  the  ear.  Hence,  exercises  in  training 
the  tongue  should  be  given  less  time  than  exercises  in  training 
the  ear,  and  these  exercises  should  be  handled  very  tactfully. 
They  should  be  presented  in  the  light  of  pleasant  recreations. 

26.  Associating  Sound  and  Symbol.  This  exercise  should 
begin  within  a  few  days  after  introducing  the  work  in  Section 
25,  and  may  begin  on  the  same  day.  It  should  be  presented 
without  delay,  because  phonics  should  be  used  early  and  often, 
so  that  the  habit  of  spelling  new  words  by  sound  becomes 
involuntary. 


RECOGNITION  OF  SOUNDS 


Second  Year  Reading  and  Phonics  85 

(a)  Resemblances.  In  order  the  more  readily  to  asso- 
ciate sounds  with  letters,  make  liberal  use  of  fancied  resem- 
blances. These  resemblances  may  be  adroitly  introduced 
through  a  story,  in  which  the  dog  growls  (r);  the  cat  says 
/;  the  cow,  m;  and  sh  says  "be  still";  ch  is  a  sneeze;  and  wh 
blows  out  a  candle.     (See  Suggestive  Lesson   Two,   Section 

3i.) 

Vowels    are    introduced    very    interestingly    through    the 

children's  initial  sounds,  and  the  sounds  blended  into  words 
which  the  children  more  readily  recognize  because  of  the 
practice  in  the  Sharp  Ears  game.  Indeed,  the  Sharp  Ears 
game  is  then  applied  to  written  as  well  as  to  oral  words. 
The  use  of  fancied  resemblances  is  merely  temporary  aid; 
it  is  a  helpful  finger  stretched  out  to  the  toddler  who  is  taking 
his  first  unsteady  steps;  it  will  soon  be  withdrawn  and  for- 
gotten. (See  Suggestive  Lesson  Three,  Section  32.) 
The  following  is  a  list  of  representative  sounds: 

ch  —  engine  sound  m  —  cow 

ng  —  bell  u  —  pig  grunt 

I  —  wires  5  —  snake  hiss 

p  —  steamboat  th  —  goose 

h  —  breath  a  —  lamb  (baa) 

t  —  clock  1  g  —  frog 

sh  —  softly  (hush)  r  —  growling  dog 

d  —  dove  z  —  bee  hum 


mouse  b      — ■  bubbles  of  water 

—  beetle  (flying)  c      —  (hard  c)  cough 


e 

v 

}        -  angry  kitten  w       -  wind  blowing 

ow 


hungry  kitten  wh  —  blowing  out  the  light 

(b)  Initial  Vowels.  Make  good  use  of  the  children's 
initials.  Continue  the  work  under  (9)  by  writing  the  letter 
on  the  board  for  the  child  to  recognize  by  sight  as  well  as  by 
sound.  Write  A  on  the  board  and  let  Alice  rise  and  "  sound  " 
her  letter;  or,  let  some  other  child  who  knows  to  whom  that 
letter  "belongs"  bow  to  Alice,  and  then  sound  the  letter. 
Thus  the  children  try  to  learn  each  other's  letters. 

Let  Roy,  Allen  and  Tom  stand  before  the  class;  then 
touch  each  child  lightly,   sounding  his  letter  and  blending 


86  Public  School  Methods 

the  three  into  r-a-t;  then  write  the  word  on  the  board.  Write 
the  combination  of  Allen's  and  Tom's  letters  (at)  five  times 
on  the  board;  leave  the  first  for  the  family  name,  then  change 
the  other  four  by  prefixing  initial  letters.  Roy's  letter 
makes  rat;  Sam's  letter,  sat;  Fannie's,  fat;  Fannie's  and 
Lora's  together,  flat. 

Use  the  small  letter  when  writing  the  initial  sound,  because 
you  wish  to  combine  the  letters  into  words. 

When  the  children  are  familiar  with  the  letters,  drop  all 
reference  to  initials;  this  device  has  served  its  purpose. 

(c)  First  Use  of  Phonics  in  Reading.  From  any  page 
in  the  primer  choose  a  phonetic  word,  as  doll,  drum,  nut. 
Write  or  print  it  on  the  board ;  let  the  children  spell  it  by  sound, 
and  pronounce  it.  Then  show  them  the  page  upon  which 
the  word  is  to  be  found  and  let  them  hunt  for  the  word,  which 
is  playing  hide-and-go-seek  with  them.  They  use  both  eye 
and  ear  in  discovering  it,  and  are  taking  the  first  step  in 
using  phonics  when  preparing  a  reading  lesson. 

27.  Diacritic  Marks.  Introduce  diacritic  marks  during 
the  first  year,  and  use  them  frequently  enough  for  the  chil- 
dren to  grasp  their  purpose,  but  depend  on  them  very  little 
for  pronouncing  words.  Diacritic  marks  for  equivalents 
may  be  wholly  omitted  in  the  first  and  second  years,  and 
used  very  little  in  the  third.  The  results  obtained  are  not 
worth  the  effort  which  must  be  spent  in  obtaining  them. 
For  instance,  in  the  word  move,  to  remember  that  the  two 
dots  shows  that  the  o  is  to  be  pronounced  like  the  double  o 
in  moon,  is  far  harder  for  the  child  than  to  remember  move 
as  a  sight  word.  A  child  well  trained  in  phonics,  meeting  the 
word  move  by  itself,  would  pronounce  it  to  rhyme  with  stove; 
if  he  met  it  in  a  sentence,  he  would  at  first  pronounce  it  in 
the  same  way,  then  change  to  the  correct  pronunciation  as 
soon  as  he  gathered  its  meaning  from  the  context. 

The  principal  use  of  diacritic  marks  is  confined  to  the 
dictionary.  Many  dictionaries  respell  most  of  the  hard  words ; 
all  dictionaries  are  virtually  compelled  to  respell  some  words; 
for  example,  the  word  one  cannot  be  so  marked  as  to  indicate 


Second  Year  Reading  and  Phonics  87 

its  pronunciation.  Besides,  dictionaries  published  by  differ- 
ent companies  use  different  sets  of  diacritic  marks,  so  the 
child  when  older  may  have  to  use  other  marks  than  those 
first  given. 

Instead  of  depending  to  a  great  extent  upon  diacritic 
marks,  depend  upon  gathering  words  into  families,  the  com- 
pound phonogram  being  the  family  name.  Thus,  in  bright, 
instead  of  marking  i  and  crossing  out  gh,  teach  the  phonogram 
ight  as  a  whole,  a  family  name.  The  child  learns  it  as  he 
learns  wh,  th,  etc.,  as  wholes,  and  prefixes  other  sound.  When 
the  first  word  belonging  to  some  family  is  learned,  immediately 
call  other  members;  for  instance,  if  love  appears  in  a  lesson, 
group  with  it  dove,  shove  and  glove.  When  stove,  grove  and 
rove  are  introduced,  we  pronounce  them  and  find  that 
though  they  look  alike,  they  are  not  in  the  same  "  sound 
family."  The  meaning  tells  the  child  the  pronunciation, 
and  the  context  gives  the  meaning. 

Besides  teaching  phonograms,  or  family  names,  point  out 
by  example  certain  general  rules  for  pronunciation.  For 
instance,  introduce  the  macron,  and  tell  the  children  that  when 
a  vowel  wears  a  flat  cap,  it  says  its  own  name,  or  has  its  long 
sound.  Tell  them,  also,  that  when  no  macron  is  used,  there 
are  other  ways  to  show  what  the  vowel  says.  An  e  at  the 
end  of  a  short  word  is  such  a  sign ;  the  final  e  is  a  friend  that 
helps  the  other  vowel  to  give  its  long  sound.  In  made  we 
know  that  a  says  a,  because  the  e  is  there  to  help;  in  mad 
we  know  a  says  a,  because  it  has  no  helper;  so,  in  pine,  pin; 
note,  not;  cube,  cub,  the  rule  holds. 

Then,  too,  some  other  letters  help  just  as  final  e  does,  only 
instead  of  standing  at  the  end  of  the  word,  they  stand  beside 
the  vowel  which  they  help.  In  rain,  we  know  what  a  says 
because  i  stands  beside  it. 

After  plenty  of  practice  the  teacher  may  make  groups 
like  these : 

Long  a,    a e,  ai,  ay.  Long  o,    o e,  oa. 

"     e,  ee,  ea.  "     u,   u e. 

"      i,    i....e. 


88  Public  School  Methods 

Under  no  circumstances  should  this  exercise  be  used  to 
introduce  the  work.  It  is  a  summing  up  which  may  or  may 
not  be  put  before  the  children.  The  rule  for  ay  may  be 
presented  like  this:  Suppose  that  the  word  play  comes  in 
the  regular  lesson ;  write  it  on  the  board  and  have  the  children 
pronounce  it  (or  the  teacher  may  pronounce  it  for  them) ; 
then  cover  the  pi  and  pronounce  ay.  Write  a  column  of 
ay's,  underscore  the  top  one  for  the  family  name,  then  call 
the  "children."  The  teacher  writes  the  "ay"  child's  name, 
and  the  pupils  pronounce  it;  as,  ay,  pl-ay,  p-ay,  d-ay,  etc. 
When  a  number  of  "children"  are  gathered  together,  the 
pupils  may  send  them  out  to  play  after  this  fashion:  The 
teacher  asks,  "Who  can  send  a  child  out  to  play?"  A  vol- 
unteer comes  forward  and  with  the  pointer  indicates  a  word 
he  knows,  as  day,  pronounces  and  erases  it.  This  game  goes 
on  till  all  of  the  "children"  are  gone.  The  teacher  points 
to  the  underscored  ay  and  asks,  "  What  sound  shall  we  think 
of  when  we  see  this?"     The  pupils  answer,  a  (the  sound). 

Instead  of  diacritic  marks  for  a,  e,  i,  o  and  u,  when  they 
precede  r,  as  in  arm,  her,  irk,  orb  and  urn,  teach  ar,  or,  er,  ir 
and  ur,  as  phonograms,  pronouncing  the  last  three  alike. 
That  plan  changes  an  army  of  hard  words  into  easy  ones. 

Have  the  pupils  write  many  words  which  the  teacher 
dictates  phonetically,  letter  by  letter ;  the  children  pronounce 
them  when  the  dictation  is  finished.  Do  not  dictate  words 
containing  silent  letters,  except  those  which  fall  under  certain 
rules,  with  which  the  children  are  familiar.  The  teacher  may 
say,  "The  next  word  has  e  for  a  helper,"  then  dictates, 
l-a-n;  the  pupils  add  the  e  and  have  lane.  Or  she  may  say, 
"In  this  word  i  helps  a,  r-ai-n;"  the  children  know  where 
the  i  comes  when  it  helps  a.  Usually  it  is  better  to  dictate 
by  families,  giving  the  family  name  or  phonogram,  as  ight; 
then  the  pupils  know  that  each  succeeding  word  has  ight  in 
it;  as,  l-ight,  s-ight,  sl-ight. 

The  next  step,  which  is  an  easy  one,  is  for  the  teacher  to 
give  the  phonogram  as  ack,  then  pronounce  pack,  lack,  as 
when   spelling  by   letter,   the   pupils    silently    thinking  the 


Second  Year  Reading  and  Phonics  89 

sounds  and  writing  the  words.  Children  thus  trained  can 
master  new  reading  lessons  with  surprising  ease. 

28.  Syllabication.  This  is  not  really  phonics,  but  the 
following  exercise  may  be  given  in  the  period  for  phonics, 
because  it  is  a  means  of  mastering  words. 

Write  two  columns  of  words : 

(i) 

rag 
sun 

moon 


(2) 

(3) 

bag 

ragbag 

man 

ragman 

shine 

sunshine 

fish 

sunfish 

day- 

Sunday 

rise 

moonrise 

beam 

moonbeam 

Then  assist  the  children  to  make  a  third  column  by  putting 
these  two  together,  as  in  (3),  above. 

Next  write  a  column  of  words,  such  as  the  following: 

(1) 
sunlight 
playmate 
sidewalk 

Then  make  two  more  columns,   (2)  and  (3),  by  separating 
these: 

(2)  (3) 

sun  light 

play  mate 

side  walk 

29.  Summary.  All  of  this  may  seem  a  great  deal  of  work 
for  the  first  year;  but  let  it  be  remembered  that  in  many 
cities  and  large  towns  from  six  to  ten  primers  or  first  readers 
are  read  through.  In  accomplishing  this,  the  pupils  need 
to  use  all  that  has  been  suggested,  and  woe  betide  if  they 
learn  to  do  without  phonics!  They  never  learn  to  depend 
upon  its  help  so  confidently  nor  use  it  so  skilfully.  Teachers 
who  receive  into  the  second  or  third  grade  pupils  who  have 
had  no  phonics  know  how  hard  it  is  to  teach  them  to  use  it 
in  pronouncing  words. 


90  Public  School  Methods 

30.  Suggestive  Lesson  One.  The  following  may  be  used 
as  the  first  lesson  in  phonics,  and  may  be  called  the  Sharp 
Ears  game. 

Teacher.  Now  we  are  ready  for  the  game!  I  want  to 
see  who  has  sharp  ears,  so  I  shall  say  a  word  very  s-1-ow-ly, 
and  then  someone  may  te!.l  me  what  I  said.  I  am  thinking 
about  something  in  this  room;  I  hope  some  one  will  touch  it. 
Who  can  touch  some  ch-a-kt  (Repeat  the  word  several 
times,  blending  more  and  more,  till  at  last  the  slowest  child 
can  hardly  miss  it.)  May  and  Dan  and  John  may  go  quickly 
and  touch  ch-a-k!     Tell  what  it  is! 

The  children  run  lightly  and  hold  up  pieces  of  chalk.  In 
the  same  way  bring  out  the  words,  wall,  book,  door.  This 
concentrates  the  attention  of  all  upon  one  object,  but  only 
a  few  have  had  the  pleasure  of  doing  something,  so  add  this: 

Teacher.  Everybody  can  touch  this  if  their  ears  are  only 
sharp  enough  to  hear  what  it  is!  When  I  say  "Ready! 
Touch  your  1-i-pV  "Ready!"  (Some  promptly  lay  a  finger 
on  the  lip,  others  imitate.) 

Teacher.     Now  touch  your  t-o. 

Then,  after  all  have  done  it,  comes  the  question:  "Who 
can  do  this?     Cl-a-p." 

"Tommy  may  do  it;  Jessie;  Ruth.     Now  all  cl-a-p!" 

"Who  can  sk-i-pf  This  whole  row  may  try.  Stand! 
Ready!     sk-i-p!" 

The  teacher  must  decide  whether  the  children  are  too 
timid  to  clap,  skip,  etc.;  also  whether  it  is  better  at  this  time 
to  have  the  pupils  repeat  the  words  slowly,  or  to  wait  a  day 
or  two. 

31.  Suggestive  Lesson  Two.  This  lesson  may  be  used  in 
associating  sounds  and  symbols. 

Teacher.  There  is  a  little  boy  named  Billy,  and  he  lives 
in  the  country  and  has  lots  of  pets.  His  cousin  Belle  came 
from  the  city  to  visit  him.  When  he  went  after  the  cow,  he 
took  Belle,  and  Carlo,  the  dog,  went  too.  The  cow  was 
waiting  at  the  pasture  gate,  and  when  she  saw  Billy  she  said, 
m-m-m  (give  the  sound).     Let  me  hear  you  say  m-m-m.     I 


Second  Year  Reading  and  Phonics  91 

will  write  something  on  the  blackboard  to  help  you  remember 
it;  when  you  see  this  m,  remember  what  the  cow  said. 

On  the  way  home,  Carlo  began  to  bark,  and  bark,  at  some- 
thing! When  Billy  and  Belle  came  closer,  they  saw  it  was 
a  black  snake,  coiled  up,  and  it  said  s-s-s.  "Come  away, 
Carlo!"  cried  Billy,  "papa  says  that  kind  of  a  snake  does  not 
hurt  anybody!"  So  Carlo  left  the  snake  and  ran  on  with 
Billy  and  Belle.  This  5  will  make  you  think  of  what  the 
snake  said.     All  say  it:  s-s-s!" 

While  the  children  were  gone,  Billy's  mother  put  some 
bread  and  bones  on  Carlo's  tin  plate.  The  cat  saw  it  and 
thought  it  was  good.  So  when  Billy  and  Belle  and  Carlo 
came,  there  was  the  cat  eating  Carlo's  supper.  My!  Carlo 
ran  to  that  plate,  and  he  growled,  V-r,"  as  if  to  say:  "What 
are  you  eating  my  supper  for?"  The  cat  sprang  away,  arched 
her  back  and  said,  " F-f-f,"  as  if  to  answer,  "There  was  such 
a  big  plateful  that  you  might  give  me  a  little."1 

(The  teacher  writes  r,  f,  m  and  s.  This  may  be  divided 
into  two  or  three  lessons,  if  preferred.  The  lesson  is  much 
more  effective  if  pictures  of  the  cow,  dog,  cat,  etc.,  each 
saying  its  own  letter,  are  shown.  New  Education  Readers, 
Book  I,  has  a  series  of  such  pictures.  The  series  is  published 
by  the  American  Book  Company. 

32.  Suggestive  Lesson  Three.  This  lesson  is  not  the  third 
in  sequence;  it  may  come  a  week  after  the  second  lesson. 
It  should  be  used  in  introducing  the  vowel  and  family  names. 

The  vowel  used  may  be  a  child's  initial,  as  A  for  Alice. 
A  stands  by  m,  and  we  have  am,  then  r-am,  S-am.  Or,  with- 
out any  reference  to  the  Billy  and  Belle  story,  the  teacher 
may  write  i  on  the  blackboard  and  say,  "  Let's  call  this  a 
little  boy,  throwing  a  ball  in  the  air.  Can  you  make  his 
picture  as  I  have?  Let's  play  this  little  boy  says  i  (give 
short  sound  of  i).  Here  is  another  picture,  t.  We  will  call 
this  a  tall  soldier  with  his  gun  on  his  shoulder.  He  says 
t  (give  sound  of  t).     Now  the  little  boy  and  soldier  take  hold 

»The  story  of  Billy  and  Belle  is  modeled  after  the  Frank  and  Fannia  story  in 
Book  I  of  New  Education  series. 


92  Public  School  Methods 

of  hands  like  this,  it.  I  wonder  what  they  say  together? 
Listen!  i-t,  it.  All  write  it.  I  will  write  it — it,  it,  it,  it — 
four  times.  Now  I  will  put  m  here,  then  s,  and  /  by  the  others, 
and  now  we  have,  it,  m-it,  s-it,  f-it. 

From  that  day  forth,  do  not  let  a  day  pass  without  blend- 
ing some  familiar  sounds  into  a  written  word.  The  story  of 
Billy  and  Belle  may  run  on  till  it  brings  in  most  of  the  alpha- 
bet and  some  special  sounds;  for  instance,  Billy  and  Belle 
met  a  flock  of  geese,  and  one  stretched  its  long  neck,  put  out 
its  tongue  and  said,  "th-th"  at  Belle.  (This  is  the  sound  of 
th  heard  in  thin.) 

However,  by  the  time  a  dozen  or  more  letters  are  learned 
through  the  stories,  or  initials,  the  pupils  will  have  grasped 
the  idea  and  can  take  and  retain  many  sounds  without  the 
aid  of  a  story.  Just  tell  them  what  oo  says,  and  weave  it 
into  words  like  shoot,  moon,  etc.,  and  they  will  remember  it. 

The  Aldine  Chart  gives  pages  of  families  of  words. 

33.  Conclusion.  Everything  is  begun  during  the  first 
year.  More  and  harder  combinations  are  presented  in  second 
and  third  years,  and  the  children  are  required  to  pronounce 
the  new  words  which  are  phonetic  in  their  reading  lessons. 


TEST  QUESTIONS 

i.  In  what  respects  would  the  attitude  of  the  children 
toward  their  lessons  at  the  beginning  of  their  second  year  of 
school  differ  from  their  attitude  at  the  close  of  the  first  year? 
Have  you  a  right  to  expect  a  rapid  return  to  the  conditions 
that  existed  at  the  end  of  the  first  year? 

2.  Contrast  the  purpose  of  second  year  reading  with  that 
of  first  year  reading.  Show  how  this  difference  in  purpose 
affects  the  character  of  recitations. 

3.  To  how  great  an  extent  should  a  child  be  able  to  read 
independently  at  the  end  of  his  second  year?     Can  you  reason 
ably  expect  that  during  the  latter  part  of  the  second  yeai  a 
child  will  make  any  independent  preparation  for  his  lessons? 


Second  Year  Reading  and  Phonics  93 

4.  Quote  a  brief  poem,  not  found  in  this  lesson,  which  you 
consider  suitable  for  second  year  work.  What  are  the  char- 
acteristics of  poetry  that  make  it  particularly  pleasing  to 
children? 

5.  Write  a  well-known  fable  in  the  style  in  which  you  would 
tell  it  to  pupils  near  the  close  of  their  second  year.  Explain 
your  method  of  presenting  the  fable  and  tell  what  you  would 
have  the  class  do  with  it. 

6.  Mention  several  means  by  which  good  expression  in 
reading  may  be  aided.  What  is  gained  by  having  the  chil- 
dren dramatize  simple  selections? 

7.  Explain  how  an  understanding  of  syllabication  is  an 
aid  to  reading  for  second  year  pupils. 

8  and  9.  Select  a  simple  poem  of  not  more  than  two  stanzas, 
and  write  out  your  plan  of  presentation,  after  the  manner  of 
that  in  Section  9. 

10.  Why  should  phonics  be  introduced  in  the  first  grade? 
How  do  phonics  assist  in  syllabication? 


CHAPTER  FOUR 

THIRD  YEAR  READING 

1.  The  Situation.  By  the  end  of  the  third  year,  the  child 
should  have  mastered  the  fundamental  principles  of  reading 
and  be  able  to  help  himself,  to  a  large  degree.  In  other 
words,  when  the  third  year  is  completed,  he  should  be  fairly 
well  through  the  "learning  to  read"  period  and  prepared  to 
enter  upon  the  enjoyments  of  reading  to  learn.  The  teacher 
should  not  infer  from  this  statement  that  at  the  end  of  the 
third  year  the  child  will  need  little  or  no  further  assistance. 
On  the  contrary,  if  he  is  to  become  a  good  reader,  he  will 
need  a  great  deal  of  assistance  during  the  next  two  years. 
But  when  he  enters  upon  the  work  of  the  fourth  grade,  the 
problem  changes.  The  teacher  of  the  third  grade  should 
see  that  her  pupils  are  prepared  to  meet  these  changed  con- 
ditions, so  that  they  may  enter  upon  the  fourth  year's  work 
without  loss  of  time. 

To  be  able  to  read  intelligently  presupposes  on  the  part 
of  the  learner  a  large  amount  of  varied  detail  work,  genuine 
application  and  industry,  unabated  interest  and  a  thirst  for 
knowledge  that  calls  forth  his  best  efforts  during  the  entire 
year.  He  brings  to  this  work  stronger  powers  of  observation, 
better  trained  than  at  the  beginning  of  the  previous  year; 
an  extensive  and  well  established  vocabulary;  ability  to  read 
second  reader  matter  intelligently;  considerable  facility  in 
the  use  of  phonics  and  syllabication;  a  knowledge  of  school 
routine,  and  some  degree  of  ability  to  study  a  reading  lesson 
independent  of  help.  These  powers  have  come  as  the  fruit 
of  his  first  two  years  in  school.  What  has  previously  been 
gained  should  be  held,  all  desirable  traits  strengthened,  and 
steady  progress  secured. 

The  long  vacation  has  to  some  extent  dulled  the  child's 

memory  of  book  lessons,  but  the  effect  will  not  be  so  marked 

as  at  the  beginning  of  the  second  year.     His  books  have  not 

94 


Third  Year  Reading  95 

been  entirely  set  aside,  as  before,  and  both  his  bodily  and 
mental  powers  have  gained  strength  during  the  summer. 
In  fact,  the  outlook  is  very  hopeful  for  this  year. 

An  inexperienced  teacher  of  reading  cannot  realize  how 
much  the  success  of  good  oral  reading  depends  upon  careful 
attention  to  the  seemingly  trivial  matters  enumerated  below. 
It  is,  however,  due  to  the  neglect  of  these  points  and  others 
closely  allied  that  we  have  even  among  adults  so  few  who 
are  really  good  readers. 

2.  Order  of  Procedure,  (a)  Continuation  of  Previous 
Work.  In  teaching,  all  the  previous  steps  must  be  retained, 
but  in  different  proportions.  The  word  method  is  now  used 
when  new  words  are  not  easily  reached  by  phonics.  In  such 
cases,  after  giving  the  meaning,  these  words  should  be  taught 
as  wholes,  as  "sight"  words,  omitting  phonetic  analysis. 
This  need,  however,  grows  less  and  less  as  the  year  advances. 

The  method  of  syllabication  is  used  whenever  possible, 
applying  phonics  to  the  parts  of  words  in  cases  of  hesitation 
caused  by  uncertainty  in  regard  to  the  correct  pronunciation 
of  any  syllable.     See  Phonics,  pages  83-92. 

(b)  Use  of  the  Sentence.  All  reading  lessons  in  this 
year  deal  with  connected  sentences,  paragraphs,  stanzas,  and 
entire  stories  or  poems.  Thus,  the  sentiment  of  a  selection 
is  constantly  searched  for,  the  new  words  being  taught  as 
incidents  needed  to  reach  the  meaning  of  the  whole  sentence, 
rather  than  as  single  words.  The  word  of  itself  is  no  longer 
an  end,  but  a  means  towards  an  end,  the  end  being  the  thought 
and  its  expression.  Not  only  is  this  true  of  the  single  word; 
it  is  also  true  of  phrases  and  idiomatic  forms. 

(c)  Grouping.  The  recognition  of  groups  of  words  must 
be  practiced  every  day,  the  children  now  understanding  the 
help  it  gives  to  actual  reading.  Lead  them,  when  preparing 
a  new  lesson,  to  look  ahead  in  each  sentence  for  the  immediate 
recognition  of  phrases.  They  must  also  be  definitely  taught 
that  no  one  group  goes  beyond  a  comma,  and  that  to  breathe 
before  the  group  is  finished  will  spoil  the  meaning.  To 
prevent  bad  habits  in  this  respect,  give  general  rules  in  regard 


96  Public  School  Methods 

to  proper  places  for  taking  breath  when  reading  aloud,  and 
see  that  these  rules  are  enforced  during  every  reading  lesson. 

3.  Breathing.  Proper  breathing  is  essential  to  good  oral 
reading,  and  special  exercises  in  breathing  should  be  given 
in  this  grade.  These  exercises  may  precede  the  reading, 
occupying  a  minute  or  so  at  the  beginning  of  the  recitation, 
or  they  may  be  given  to  the  whole  school  once  or  twice  a 
day  at  a  short  rest  period. 

Have  the  pupils  stand  erect,  place  their  hands  upon  the 
hips,  throw  the  chest  out,  and  inhale  slowly  until  the  lungs 
are  filled;  then,  at  a  given  signal,  exhale  as  slowly.  This 
movement  is  easily  regulated  by  the  teacher  raising  the  hand 
slowly  while  the  pupils  inhale,  and  lowering  it  while  they 
exhale.  The  exercise  can  be  varied  in  a  number  of  ways: 
(i)  As  the  pupils  inhale  let  them  raise  their  hands  above 
their  heads,  then  lower  them  as  they  exhale.  (2)  Let  the 
pupils  place  their  hands  upon  their  chests  and  tap  them 
lightly  with  the  palms  of  the  hands  as  they  exhale.  (3)  The 
production  of  tones,  as  a,  ah,  o,  can  also  be  practiced  with 
this  exercise. 

Train  the  pupils  in  breathing  until  it  becomes  a  fixed 
habit  to  fill  the  lungs  before  beginning  to  read,  and  to  take 
breath  naturally  at  every  convenient  pause,  whether  need  of 
breath  is  felt  at  that  time  or  not.  This  will  prevent  the  sense 
of  hurry  and  fatigue  that  comes  from  the  breath  being  sud- 
denly exhausted.  Correct  breathing  will  enable  the  pupil 
to  read  phrases  and  clauses  through  to  the  very  end  with 
smoothness  and  ease.  Recall  continually  to  the  minds  of  the 
children  that  the  meaning  of  a  group  of  words  is  lost  and  the 
expression  of  it  ruined  when  the  reader  must  stop  before  the 
end  to  take  breath. 

Cautions.  (1)  Children  of  this  age  have  less  lung  capacity 
than  adults,  and  care  must  be  used  or  the  exercises  will  be 
made  too  strenuous.  The  breathing  should  be  deep  but 
gentle,  the  inhaling  and  exhaling  done  without  undue  effort. 
Learning  to  prolong  the  inhalations  and  exhalations  is  safer 
than  to  try  much  explosiveness.     The  latter  should  be  used 


Third  Year  Reading  97 

with  care,  since  it  often  causes  dizziness,  faintness  or  head- 
ache, due  to  the  increased  pressure  upon  the  lungs.  These 
points  are  emphasized  here  not  only  for  hygienic  reasons, 
but  because  of  the  important  bearing  correct  breathing  has 
upon  successful  oral  reading. 

(2)  Do  not  allow  pupils  to  sit  with  arms  folded  across  the 
chest.  This  practice  restricts  the  breathing,  brings  the 
shoulders  forward  into  an  unnatural  position,  causes  the 
shoulder  blades  to  protrude  and  is  productive  of  much  general 
injury. 

(3)  The  breath  should  always  be  taken  into  the  lungs 
through  the  nose.  The  habit  of  breathing  with  the  mouth 
open  is  both  unnatural  and  dangerous.  It  admits  the  air 
to  the  throat  and  lungs  before  it  is  properly  warmed,  often 
causing  sore  throat,  catarrh  and  even  soreness  of  the  bronchial 
tubes  and  lungs.  Impurities  of  all  sorts  that  nature  intended 
the  nostrils  to  prevent  are  also  admitted  into  the  system 
through  the  open  mouth. 

(4)  While  breathing  exercises  are  so  vitally  related  to  oral 
reading  that  they  may  very  properly  occupy  the  first  minute 
or  two  of  the  reading  recitation,  the  two  should  be  kept 
entirely  separate.  After  the  reading  begins,  it  should  not 
be  interrupted  for  the  breathing  exercises.  Neither  should 
a  pupil  be  stopped  in  his  reading  and  told  to  "take  breath." 
Either  practice  will  prevent  a  free  and  full  expression  by  the 
pupils. 

4.  Bad  Habits.  Children  are  growing  rapidly  and  this 
fact  sometimes  causes  an  indolence  or  lethargy  that  results 
in  awkward  movements  and  bad  habits.  Some  of  these  are 
being  slow  to  rise  when  called  upon;  standing  with  all  the 
weight  upon  one  foot  or  with  knees  loosely  bent;  half  stand- 
ing, clinging  to  or  resting  upon  the  desk  with  one  hand; 
beginning  to  read  when  rising  from  the  seat;  beginning  to 
sit  down  while  reading  the  last  sentence. 

All  these  should  be  discouraged  or  prevented  by  keeping 
the  body  and  mind  of  the  pupil  alert  and  fully  obedient  to 
the  rules   established  for  the  reading  period.     Keeping  in 


98  Public  School  Methods 

mind  that  the  bodily  movements  react  upon  the  mind  and 
that  careless  thinking  will  be  found  along  with  careless 
movements,  interest  should  be  created  and  kept  vivid 
throughout  the  entire  lesson,  with  no  slouching  allowed, 
either  when  standing  or  sitting. 

5.  Rules  for  Readers.  Good  standards  of  reading  should 
by  the  third  year  be  fairly  well  established  as  habits.  How- 
ever, pupils  will  soon  lapse  from  grace  in  these  matters  unless 
the  teacher  is  ever  on  the  alert  to  prevent  bad  habits  by 
constantly  enforcing  proper  ones. 

In  addition  to  the  rules  given  to  first  and  second  year 
pupils,  teach  the  following: 

(i)  Read  slowly  enough  so  that  every  word  will  be 
clear  and  distinct,  but  not  slowly  enough  to  break  the 
phrasing. 

(2)  Open  the  mouth  well  when  reading.  The  voice  needs 
to  be  carried  forward.  When  the  teeth  or  lips  are  too  nearly 
closed  while  reading  or  speaking,  the  voice  is  forced  backward 
and  lost,  or  the  utterance  made  thick  and  indistinct. 

(3)  "  Speak  clearly,  if  you  speak  at  all, 

Carve  every  word  before  you  let  it  fall." 

6.  The  Alphabet.  In  the  work  of  the  first  year  we  sug- 
gested ways  by  which  the  alphabet  may  be  taught  without 
any  set  time  for  it  and  without  detracting  from  the  interest 
of  the  reading.  The  alphabet,  then,  may  be  taught  inci- 
dentally, as  one  form  of  seat  work,  building  names  and  other 
words  with  sticks  or  pegs,  and  later,  with  printed  alphabets, 
as  an  adjunct  to  the  penmanship  lessons,  and  in  connection 
with  phonics. 

Where  the  above  suggestions  are  followed  wisely,  a  child 
seldom  reaches  the  second  year  without  knowing  all  the 
letters  of  the  alphabet  by  form  and  name.  He  has  learned 
them  indiscriminately,  without  regard  to  order,  as  incidents 
to  other  lessons.  However,  if  the  work  in  phonics  has  been 
properly  done,  he  has  learned  that  each  letter  stands  for  one 
or  more  sounds,  and  that  certain  combinations  of  letters 
always  stand  for  the  same  sound;  as,  ay,  at,  ight  (see  Phonics, 


Third  Year  Reading  99 

page  87).  He  also  soon  learns  that  the  letters  are  intimately 
and  inseparably  associated  with  the  art  of  spelling. 

In  the  second  year,  he  finds  out  that  he  can  make  his 
knowledge  of  the  alphabet  serve  him  to  make  out  new  words ; 
at  least,  that  if  he  names  the  letters  as  they  occur  in  the 
strange  word,  his  teacher  or  some  one  else  will  be  able  to 
pronounce  the  word  for  him.  This  keeps  the  names  of  the 
letters  fresh  in  his  mind,  as  do  his  penmanship  lessons  and 
his  spelling  lessons. 

In  various  ways  he  gets  help  from  the  letters.  Still  it 
often  occurs  that  he  reaches  the  third  year  of  school  and  knows 
little  or  nothing  of  the  regular  order  of  the  letters  of  the 
alphabet.  This  is  the  only  new  thing  about  them  to  learn 
and  is  best  taught  as  a  game.  The  pupils  may  choose  sides 
and  see  which  ones  can  say  the  letters  in  order.  At  the 
recess  or  noon  time  children  may  hear  each  other  say  the 
letters  in  order,  keeping  track  of  all  who  do  not  fail.  The 
teacher  may  now  and  then,  in  the  period  for  phonics,  go  to 
the  board,  saying,  "  I  wish  to  write  the  letters  of  the  alphabet 
in  order  and  write  them  very  quickly.  Please  give  the 
names,  one  after  the  other,  as  they  come.  Mary,  begin." 
Down  one  row,  back  the  next,  as  quickly  as  the  children  can 
speak,  names  are  given  and  the  teacher  writes.  At  another 
time,  a  minute  or  two  may  be  devoted  to  a  rapid  drill  after 
this  form:  "What  letter  comes  next  after  yV\  "After  m?", 
"After  cV,  "After  hi",  and  so  on  till  no  child  can  be  found 
who  is  uncertain. 

These  exercises  are  amusing  and  interesting,  make  a  use- 
ful diversion,  and,  if  followed  for  a  short  time  in  the  third 
year,  will  enable  the  children  readily  to  use  the  dictionary, 
city  and  telephone  directories,  cyclopedia  and  other  indexed 
books  when  they  need  them — a  thing  many  carelessly  taught 
pupils  of  the  higher  grammar  grades  are  unable  to  do. 

7.  Phonics.  Review  as  much  of  the  work  of  the  second 
year  as  may  be  necessary  to  bring  what  they  have  learned 
clearly  before  the  pupils.  Continue  the  lines  of  work  given 
on    pages    83-92,    and   add   new   phonograms,   blends,   end- 


100  Public  School  Methods 

ings  and  words  as  rapidly  as  the  advancement  in  reading 
requires,  being  sure  that  all  this  work  is  thoroughly  done. 
As  a  result  of  these  lessons,  the  child's  power  to  recognize 
and  pronounce  new  words  should  increase  rapidly.  Drills 
in  enunciation,  articulation  and  pronunciation  should  be 
frequent,  but  need  not  occur  daily. 

Introduce  some  special  exercises  to  secure  projection  of 
tones,  flexibility  and  smoothness,  as  Tennyson's  Blow, 
Bugle,  Blow  and  Sweet  and  Low.  Exercises  to  cultivate 
energetic  expression  and  emphasis  may  also  be  given,  as 
Charge,  Chester,  Charge!,  On,  Stanley,  On!  Teachers  may  use 
to  advantage  "Sail  on!  and  on!  and  on!"  from  Joaquin 
Miller's  Columbus.  Even  better  results  will  be  reached  by 
using  all  of  this  poem  and  the  two  named  from  Tennyson. 
The  dramatic  element  always  appeals  to  the  children  and 
calls  out  their  best  efforts. 

These  particular  poems  are  beyond  the  grade  of  reading 
used  for  the  third  year,  but  if  written  upon  the  board  and 
left  there,  the  words  will  be  more  easily  learned  and  rendered 
than  when  learned  entirely  from  imitation.  One  of  the  best 
poems  for  this  purpose,  in  their  own  grade,  is  A  Visit  from 
St.  Nicholas,  found  in  many  reading  books. 

8.  Rules  for  Pronunciation.  The  principles  of  pronun- 
ciation taught  in  the  first  and  second  grade  in  an  informal 
manner,  can,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  third  year,  be  formulated 
into  rules,  if  this  step  is  desired. 

i.  In  words  of  one  syllable  ending  in  e,  the  vowel  is  long, 
as  in  white.  When  the  vowel  is  the  last  letter  and  the  only 
vowel  in  the  word  or  accented  syllable,  it  has  the  long  sound, 
as  in  me. 

2.  Silent  e  at  the  end  of  a  word  or  syllable  makes  the  pre- 
ceding vowel  long,  as  in  fat,  fate. 

3.  In  words  of  one  syllable,  not  ending  in  e,  the  vowel  is 
short  between  two  single  consonants,  as  in  cat. 

4.  In  words  of  more  than  one  syllable,  the  first  vowel  is 
usually  long  when  there  is  but  one  consonant  between  it 
and  the  next  vowel,  as  in  writing.     It  is  short  when  there  are 


Third  Year  Reading  101 

two  or  more  consonants,  or  a  double  consonant,  between  it 
and  the  next  vowel,  as  in  springing,  hatter. 

9.  Sight  Reading  for  the  First  Three  Years.  Any 
reading  that  is  required  without  preparation  is  called  sight 
reading.  From  the  very  fact  that  no  chance  is  given  for 
definite  preparation,  sight  reading,  as  reading,  cannot  be 
required  during  the  first  year.  The  nearest  approximation 
to  it  is  a  rapid  review  of  single  words  and  short  idioms  which 
have  previously  been  thoroughly  taught.  Sometimes  this 
test  is  given  from  the  blackboard  or  chart;  sometimes,  by 
the  rapid  showing  of  small  cards  upon  which  words  have 
been  written  in  large  script  with  a  rubber  pen  or  a  very  heavy 
stub  pen. 

In  the  second  year  these  sight  drills  should  be  continued 
upon  words  that  have  been  discovered  to  be  difficult  for  the 
class  to  remember.  More  often,  however,  the  drills  should 
be  upon  longer  idioms  and  especially  upon  full  phrases. 
Thus,  the  teacher  prepares  cards,  as  described,  upon  each 
of  which  may  be  such  an  expression  as  a  large,  beautiful  wax 
doll;  a  fine  new  lace  handkerchief;  a  targe,  new  football;  a  pretty, 
red  geranium  blossom;  a  humming,  buzzing  bumble  bee,  an  old 
brown  stone  house;  a  weary,  foot-sore  horse;  a  good  name  is 
rather  to  be  chosen  than  great  riches. 

It  will  help  forward  the  daily  lessons  better  if  the  teacher 
selects  the  phrases  in  the  book  from  lessons  that  are  soon  to 
be  read.  These  phrases  should  be  taught  in  some  prepara- 
tory period  and  not  allowed  to  interfere  with  the  legular 
reading  lesson. 

During  the  last  term  of  the  second  year,  pupils  may  be 
led  to  review  portions  of  various  first  readers  for  exercise  in 
sight  reading. 

In  the  third  year  the  sight  reading  of  the  first  term  does 
not  differ  from  that  of  the  second  year.  Nothing  should  be 
attempted  that  has  not  been  previously  taught  with  care. 
In  the  second  and  third  terms  of  the  year  the  sight  phrases 
may  be  considerably  lengthened;  pupils  may  be  given  many 
easy  sentences  to  read  at  sight;  frequent  tests  upon  earlier 


102  Public  School  Methods 

reading  lessons  in  second  and  third  readers  may  be  given  as 
sight  lessons,  and  occasionally  the  teacher  may  require  some- 
thing entirely  new  to  be  read  in  this  way.  When  this  is 
done,  the  teacher  must  be  certain  that  no  new  words  are  to 
be  found  and  that  the  selection  is  simpler  in  style  than  that 
used  in  the  daily  lesson. 

Cautions.  ( i )  Sight  reading  must  always  be  easier  than 
a  lesson  that  is  to  be  prepared  beforehand.  Difficult  sight 
reading  begets  numerous  bad  habits. 

(2)  The  use  of  sight  reading  should  always  be  limited. 
It  is  but  a  test  and  there  are  nearly  always  members  of  the 
class  who  will  not  be  prepared  for  it,  because  of  absence  or 
for  other  reasons. 

10.  Silent  Reading  and  Oral  Reading.  It  is  by  means  of 
silent  reading  that  we  gather  thoughts  from  the  printed 
page.  It  is  by  oral  reading  that  we  give  those  thoughts,  in 
the  exact  words  of  the  author,  to  others.  It  is  frequently 
by  oral  reading  that  we  test  the  correctness  of  silent  reading. 
Many  times  the  eye  needs  the  assistance  of  the  ear  to  prove 
or  disprove  the  accuracy  of  the  first  reading.  This  is  par- 
ticularly true  in  the  primary  grades.  To  a  less  degree,  and 
seldom  except  in  intricate  passages,  this  is  true  with 
adults. 

In  any  case,  silent  reading  must  precede  the  oral  reading. 
This  is  true  even  when  there  is  no  time  given  for  preparation. 
The  eye  glances  ahead  of  the  words  that  the  voice  is  uttering 
and  enables  the  reader  to  go  on  without  faltering,  because 
confidence  is  thus  maintained. 

During  the  last  term  of  the  third  year,  pupils  should 
gradually  be  trained  to  do  this  mechanical  looking  ahead 
without  losing  the  thought  of  what  they  are  reading  or  for- 
getting to  impress  their  hearers  by  their  pleasing  interpre- 
tation of  it.  As  an  occasional  help  in  such  training,  pupils 
may  be  asked  to  read  a  simple  new  selection  aloud  with  the 
understanding  that  at  a  given  signal  they  look  instantly 
away  from  the  book  but  continue  to  read  as  long  as  they  can 
recall  the  words  they  have  seen  in  advance.     At  the  first 


Third  Year  Reading  103 

trial  the  teacher  may  be  surprised  by  the  difference  in  power 
shown  by  individuals  in  the  class. 

It  is  self-evident  that,  as  a  rule,  among  older  pupils  and 
adults  the  amount  of  silent  reading  done  greatly  exceeds 
the  amount  of  oral  reading.  In  the  first  three  or  four  years 
the  amount  of  each  is  very  nearly  the  same.  Oral  reading 
is  needed  in  order  to  test  the  accuracy  of  the  thought- 
gathering  (silent  reading).  It  is  also  needed  as  an  oppor- 
tunity in  which  pupils  may  be  trained  in  emphasis,  inflec- 
tions, pauses  and  all  else  that  goes  to  make  expressive 
reading. 

11.  The  Critical  Period.  The  third  year  is  the  critical 
period  in  oral  reading.  The  children  are  becoming  self- 
conscious,  and  unless  the  teacher  uses  her  utmost  tact  and 
skill,  their  hitherto  buoyancy  of  expression  will  be  trans- 
formed into  the  mechanical  utterance  of  stilted  phrases. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  this  fault  can  be  prevented,  and  the 
children  can  be  led  to  continue  through  the  year  with  the 
same  freedom  of  expression  which  characterized  their  read- 
ing in  the  first  and  second  grades,  they  will  enter  the  fourth 
grade  well  prepared  for  a  broader  study  of  the  principles 
of  expression  which  are  essential  to  good  oral  reading  in  the 
higher  grades.  Oral  reading,  during  the  third  year,  should 
therefore  receive  careful  attention. 

(a)  Prevent  Faults.  Remove  all  obstructions  to 
expression  before  the  pupils  are  called  upon  to  read  the 
selection  orally.  See  that  they  can  pronounce  all  new  words, 
and  that  they  understand  the  meaning  of  every  sentence 
and  paragraph  in  the  lesson. 

(b)  Bring  Out  the  Thought.  By  questioning,  lead 
the  pupils  to  discover  the  thought  for  themselves.  They 
will  then  be  much  more  liable  to  express  it  in  their 
reading. 

(c)  Criticisms.  Pupils  should  be  allowed  to  read  with- 
out interruption.  When  the  pupil  is  through,  criticisms  under 
the  direction  of  the  teacher  may  be  given.  When  these  are 
offered  by  the  pupils,  they  should  be  confined  to  the  render- 


104  Public  School  Methods 

ing  of  the  selection,  or  the  portion  of  it  read,  and  the  pupil 
offering  the  criticism  should  be  expected  to'  illustrate  his 
criticism  by  reading  the  part  criticised.  Fault-finding, 
criticising  pronunciation  of  words,  and  petty  details  of  this 
character,  should  not  be  allowed.  Whatever  criticism  of 
language  is  necessary  should  be  made  by  the  teacher.  In 
general,  when  one  pupil  is  reading,  the  others  should  listen, 
with  books  closed. 

(d)  Interest.  The  children  are  especially  interested  in 
selections  that  are  full  of  action,  and  much  of  the  reading 
matter  should  be  of  this  kind.  Allow  the  pupils  to  present 
the  story  as  a  play,  whenever  it  lends  itself  readily  to  this 
treatment.     (See  Dramatization,  pages  163-167.) 

12.  Illustrative  Lesson.  The  following  type  lesson  is 
given  as  a  suggestion.  Each  teacher  will  have  her  own 
plans,  and  her  own  way  of  leading  pupils  to  interpret  and 
enjoy  literary  selections.  The  chief  purpose  of  this  lesson 
is  to  show  what  facts  must  be  established  before  the  chil- 
dren can  understand  the  author's  meaning,  and  this  must 
be  clearly  perceived  by  the  teacher  before  the  lesson  is  given. 
A  study  of  the  poem  which  we  use  as  the  basis  of  the  illus- 
trative lesson  shows  that  the  author's  purpose  was  to  express 
the  longing  of  the  child  for  things  he  has  not  seen,  and  his 
effort  to  satisfy  this  longing.  In  the  accompanying  illus- 
tration, the  boy's  purpose  in  climbing  the  tree,  then,  is 
not  to  pick  the  cherries,  nor  to  accomplish  a  daring  feat; 
it  is  to  look  over  the  garden  wall  and  fill  his  soul  with  the 
beauty  of  what  lies  beyond. 

The  illustration  emphasizes  the  thought,  when  studied 
from  the  author's  point  of  view.  But  if  studied  with  the 
idea  of  the  cherries,  or  the  act  of  climbing  foremost  in  mind, 
it  leads  the  child  entirely  away  from  the  thought  which  the 
poem  was  intended  to  bring  out.  Attention  is  called  to 
these  points  of  view  for  the  purpose  of  showing  how  a  picture 
may  be  a  help  or  a  hindrance  in  interpreting  a  selection. 
In  making  her  preparation,  the  teacher  should  give  both 
the  picture  and  the  poem  careful  study. 


Third  Year  Reading 


105 


FOREIGN    LANDS 

Up  into  the  cherry  tree, 

Who  should  climb  but  little  me? 

I  held  the  trunk  with  both  my  hands 

And  looked  abroad  on  foreign  lands. 

I  saw  the  next-door  garden  lie, 
Adorned  with  flowers  before  my  eye, 
And  many  pleasant  places  more 
That  I  had  never  seen  before. 

I  saw  the  dimpling  river  pass 
And  be  the  sky's  blue  looking-glass; 
The  dusty  roads  go  up  and  down 
With  people  tramping  in  to  town. 

If  I  could  find  a  higher  tree, 
Farther  and  farther  I  should  see, 
To  where  the  grown-up  river  slips 
Into  the  sea  among  the  ships. 


106  Public  School  Methods 

To  where  the  roads  on  either  hand 
Lead  onward  into  fairy  land, 
Where  all  the  children  dine  at  five, 
And  all  the  playthings  come  alive. 

— Robert  Louis  Stevenson. 

Teacher:  Our  lesson  today  is  about  foreign  lands.  That 
expression  is  a  little  hard  for  me  to  understand.  Who  can 
explain  it  to  me?     Can  you,  John? 

John:  I  think  it  means  far  away  lands  or  places  we 
have  not  seen. 

Teacher:     Good.     Who  can  name  a  foreign  land?     Kate. 

Kate:     Italy. 

Teacher'     That's  right.     Another,  Mary. 

Mary:     Germany. 

Teacher:  Right.  If  we  were  to  visit  a  foreign  country, 
what  do  you  think  we  would  see,  Howard? 

Howard:  We  would  see  the  ocean  and  big  cities,  and 
the  people  would  be  strange.  May  be  we  would  see  high 
mountains. 

Teacher:  Good.  Now  let  us  look  at  our  lesson.  Read 
the  first  stanza  to  yourselves.  Who  was  it  in  our  story  who 
saw  foreign  lands,  Rob? 

Rob:     It  was  a  boy. 

Teacher:     How  did  he  see  these  lands,  Helen? 

Helen:     He  climbed  a  tree. 

Teacher:  Good.  That  was  an  easy  way  to  take  a 
journey,  wasn't  it?  Now  read  the  stanza  for  us, 
Edna. 

(Edna  reads.) 

Teacher:  That  was  well  read.  Read  the  second  stanza 
silently  and  tell  me  what  the  little  boy  saw.  The  first  word 
of  the  second  line  is  hard.  Does  anyone  know  it?  It  is 
adorned.  (Teacher  pronounces  it.)  Pronounce  it,  class. 
Give  it  again,  Rob.  Again,  Helen.  Once  more,  class.  It 
means  made  beautiful.     What  was  adorned? 

Class:     The  next  door  garden. 

Teacher:     Right.     What  adorned  the  garden,  Kate? 


Third  Year  Reading  107 

Kate:    Flowers. 

Teacher:     Now  tell  me  what  the  boy  saw,  John. 

John:     He  saw  the  flowers  in  the  garden  next  door. 

Teacher:  Why  do  you  think  he  had  not  seen  that  garden 
before,  class? 

Henry:     May  be  there  was  a  high  fence  around  it. 

Tom:     May  be  there  were  tall  trees  in  front  of  it. 

Teacher:     What  do  you  think,  Mary? 

Mary:  There  might  have  been  a  little  hill  in  front  of 
the  garden. 

Teacher:  Yes,  that  may  have  been  true.  Read  this 
stanza  for  us,  John. 

(John  reads.) 

Teacher:     I  should  like  to  hear  you  read  it,  too,  Kate. 

(Kate  reads.) 

Teacher:  Look  at  the  next  stanza,  class.  What  is  this 
word,  d-i-m-p-1-i-n-g,  Edna? 

(Edna  pronounces  the  word.) 

Teacher:     Right.     What  is  a  dimple,  Howard? 

Howard:  It  is  a  little  hollow  in  a  baby's  cheek  when 
it  laughs. 

Teacher:  That  is  good.  What  could  make  a  river  have 
dimples,  Helen? 

Helen:    The  wind  might  blow  it. 

Teacher:  Surely.  What  do  we  say  of  the  river  when 
the  wind  blows  it? 

Helen:    We  say  it  has  little  waves. 

Teacher:  Right.  Now  shut  your  eyes  and  see  if  you 
can  see  the  river  covered  with  little  waves.  What  color 
are  the  waves  you  see,  Howard? 

Howard:  Some  of  them  are  white  and  shiny,  some  are 
blue,  and  some  are  dark. 

Teacher:  Why,  that  is  a  pretty  river  you  see.  Let  us 
call  it  the  dimpling  river.    What  is  it,  class? 

Class:    The  dimpling  river. 

Teacher:  Open  your  eyes  now,  and  tell  me  what  the 
boy  saw  in  the  river. 


108  Public  School  Methods 

Edna:    I  think  he  saw  the  blue  clouds. 

Teacher:     Why,  Edna? 

Edna:  Because  it  says  the  river  was  the  sky's  blue 
looking-glass. 

Teacher:  That's  a  good  thought.  Have  you  ever  seen 
blue  and  white  clouds  pictured  in  the  water?  Are  they 
pretty?  Yes,  they  are  beautiful.  What  else  did  the  child 
see,  Rob? 

Rob:  He  saw  the  dusty  roads  with  the  people  walking 
up  and  down  them. 

Teacher:     Read  this  stanza,  Mary. 

(Mary  reads.) 

Teacher:  Read  it  again  for  us,  Helen,  and  try  to  make 
us  see  that  blue  looking-glass. 

(Helen  reads.) 

Teacher:  That  was  well  read.  I  shall  remember  that 
pretty  river.  Shall  you,  class?  Read  the  next  stanza  to 
yourselves.     What  did  the  child  wish  he  could  do,  Rob? 

Rob:     Find  a  higher  tree. 

Teacher:    Why  ? 

Rob:     He  wanted  to  see  farther. 

Teacher:  What  did  he  think  he  could  see  if  he  were  in 
a  higher  tree,  Helen? 

Helen:     The  river  slip  into  the  sea. 

Teacher:    What  is  a  grown  up  river,  class? 

Class:     It's  a  big  one. 

Teacher:     Good.     What  helps  a  river  to  grow  up,  Edna? 

Edna:     Little  rivers  run  into  it  and  make  it  bigger. 

Teacher:  That  is  a  good  answer.  What  kind  of  ships 
should  we  see  on  the  ocean,  Howard? 

Howard:     Big  ones. 

Teacher:  That  is  right.  What  is  it  the  grown-up  river 
does,  Rob? 

Rob:     Slips  into  the  sea  among  the  ships. 

Teacher:  Tell  me  that  together,  class.  (Class  repeats.) 
Tell  it  again,  Kate.  (Kate  answers.)  Now  read  the  whole 
stanza,  Rob. 


Third  Year  Reading  109 

(Rob  reads.) 

Teacher:     Read  it  once  more,  John. 

(John  reads.) 

Teacher:  Would  you  like  to  see  the  river  slipping  into 
the  sea  among  the  ships?  If  you  could  do  that,  what  would 
you  like  to  do  next,  Rob? 

Rob:     Get  into  a  boat  and  sail  away. 

Teacher:  What  fun  that  would  be!  Let  us  see  how 
far  this  little  boy  would  like  to  see.  Who  is  ready  to  read 
the  last  stanza?  Tell  me,  first,  what  the  last  line  means. 
What  do  you  think  it  means,  John? 

John:  It  means  that  our  rocking-horses,  our  tin  soldiers 
and  engines  would  all  be  real  ones  and  not  make-believe  ones. 

Teacher:     Read  the  stanza,  Howard. 

(Howard  reads.) 

Teacher:  Now  let  us  look  at  the  picture  a  moment.  Why 
did  this  little  boy  climb  the  tree,  Mary? 

Mary:     He  wanted  to  see  something  new  and  pretty. 

Teacher:  Mary  thinks  well.  Why  did  he  climb  the  cherry 
tree,  Rob? 

Rob:     Because  it  was  the  highest  one  he  could  find. 

Teacher:  What  do  you  think  was  the  prettiest  thing  he 
saw  while  in  the  tree,  Helen? 

Helen:     The  flowers  in  the  next  door  garden. 

Teacher:  They  must  have  been  pretty.  What  do  you 
think,  Edna? 

Edna:     I  think  the  dimpling  river  and  the  sky. 

Teacher:  Yes,  they  were  pretty.  What  do  you  think 
the  boy  liked  best,  John? 

John:    The  sea  and  the  ships. 

Teacher:  John,  did  he  really  see  those  things?  Look 
at  the  fourth  stanza. 

John:     No,  he  just  wanted  to  see  them. 

Teacher:  Now  let  us  read  the  whole  poem,  just  to  help 
us  remember  the  beautiful  things  the  child  saw.  Read  the 
first  two  stanzas,  Kate ;  the  third  one,  Howard ;  the  last  two, 
Edna.     Read  the  whole  poem,  Helen. 


110  Public  School  Methods 

13.  Selection  of  Reading  Matter.  Permanent  literature 
may  be  given  more  freely  during  the  third  year  than  here- 
tofore. The  vocabulary,  oral  and  written,  has  been  much 
increased,  and  the  literary  taste  of  the  child  has  been  im- 
proved by  the  selections  he  has  heard  from  good  authors. 
Moreover,  his  ability  to  help  himself  now  spurs  his  ambi- 
tion to  try  to  read  independently  from  his  readers  and  from 
other  books.  He  is  also  beginning  to  realize  that  there  is 
a  world  of  books  before  him,  and  that  there  are  books  he 
may  read  that  are  not  reading  books. 

Without  being  able  to  express  his  literary  needs,  the 
child's  nature  reaches  out  for  reading  matter  that  is  beyond 
the  commonplace,  trivial  atmosphere  of  his  daily  life,  and 
welcomes  tales  and  poems  that  embody  the  unusual,  the 
remote,  and  the  nobler,  higher  relations  of  life. 

(a)  Myths,  Fables  and  Legends.  The  child's  imagina- 
tion takes  eager  hold  upon  the  characters  and  situations 
expressed  in  fables,  myths,  legends,  fairy  tales  and  poems, 
all  of  which  form  most  valuable  reading  for  the  third  year, 
when  selected  judiciously  as  to  content,  vocabulary  and 
simplicity  of  style. 

Third  year  pupils  are  not  always  of  the  same  age  and 
capacity,  hence  we  shall  not  attempt  to  say  just  what  fables, 
myths,  tales  or  poems  should  be  given  to  them,  nor  just 
how  many.  Each  teacher  knows  the  mental  strength  of  her 
own  class  better  than  any  one  else,  and  therefore  is  better 
able  to  judge  for  them. 

(b)  Other  Reading.  We  may  say  in  general  that  the 
world's  permanent  literature  must  be  interwoven,  here- 
after, with  the  other  reading.  The  imagination  is  to  be  fed, 
but  the  pupil  must  also  begin  upon  the  second  stage  of  read- 
ing, viz.,  reading  to  learn,  reading  for  the  information  it 
gives.  Heretofore  his  time  has  necessarily  been  devoted 
to  learning  to  read.  These  first  difficulties  are  not  entirely 
conquered,  and  will  not  be  for  at  least  a  year  or  two  more. 
However,  they  need  no  longer  occupy  the  child's  reading 
time  exclusively.     Every  day  now,  as  a  part  of  the  regular 


Third  Year  Reading  111 

reading  lesson,  something  should  be  introduced  that  will 
give  the  pleasure  that  comes  with  the  acquirement  of  knowl- 
edge. A  fair  balance  is  thus  preserved  and  the  higher  element 
in  the  reading  acts  as  a  healthful  mental  stimulant. 

(c)  Suggestions.  To  aid  the  teacher  in  choosing  wisely 
for  the  children  of  the  third  year,  we  herewith  offer  the 
following  suggestions.  That  they  may  meet  the  needs  of 
the  third  year  pupils,  the  fables,  myths,  legends  and  tales 
which  are  selected  should  possess  certain  indispensable  char- 
acteristics : 

(i)  They  should  be  suitable  as  to  the  topics  treated. 
These  may  appropriately  be  (a)  insects,  birds,  quadrupeds 
or  other  forms  of  animal  life;  (b)  forms  of  plant  life,  par- 
ticularly flowers  and  trees;  (c)  sun,  moon  and  stars;  (d) 
natural  phenomena,  as  clouds,  rain,  the  rainbow,  vapor, 
dew,  frost,  hail,  snow  and  the  winds  and  their  effects;  (e) 
physical  features  of  the  earth,  as  mountains,  rivers  and 
fountains;  (f)  precious  stones. 

(2)  The  second  notable  characteristic  should  be  sim- 
plicity of  idea.  There  should  be  no  complexity  of  plot,  no 
crowding  of  characters,  no  great  prolongation  of  time.  The 
characters  should  be  few,  the  action  rapid  and  direct.  The 
imagination  of  the  child  will  satisfactorily  fill  out  the  stage 
settings  when  needed. 

(3)  The  language  should  be  simple,  yet  elevating.  Sent- 
ences need  to  be  short  and  direct,  in  order  to  keep  the  situa- 
tion dramatic,  and  they  must  be  simple  enough  for  the 
child  to  follow  readily.  Words  and  figures  should  be  simple, 
yet  carefully  chosen  for  their  graphic  picturesqueness. 

(4)  The  moral  should  be  easily  apparent  and  come  as 
the  natural,  inevitable  outcome  of  the  situation. 

(5)  They  should  not  be  such  as  to  leave  a  morbid  or 
fearsome  feeling  as  a  result  of  the  reading.  They  should 
gratify  the  sense  of  justice  but  call  forth  no  thought  of 
revenge.  Pity,  tenderness,  forbearance,  bravery  and  noble 
motives,  portrayed  vividly  in  the  imaginary  characters, 
live  again  in  the  child. 


112  Public  School  Methods 

To  illustrate :  The  children  love  the  story  of  The  Three 
Bears.  Golden  Hair  is  as  good  as  she  is  beautiful,  and  in 
entering  the  home  of  the  bears  has  no  thought  of  doing 
wrong.  The  danger  of  the  situation  is  realized  by  the  class 
but  not  by  the  little  girl,  who  is  their  idol  from  her  first 
introduction.  The  children  enjoy  the  dramatic  situation 
keenly  and  watch  breathlessly  for  the  return  of  the  bears, 
wondering  what  they  will  do  to  poor  Golden  Hair,  by  this 
time  fast  asleep  upon  the  bed  of  the  little  wee  bear. 

When  the  bears  return,  the  conversation  of  the  three 
amuses  the  children  greatly.  They  anticipate  with  huge 
delight  the  various  surprises  of  the  bears.  The  children 
almost  forget  Golden  Hair's  dangers  in  the  pleasure  of  this 
scene.  When  the  bears  at  last  find  her,  the  author  of  all 
the  mischief,  the  children  are  keyed  up  to  the  highest  pitch 
of  doubt  and  fear  as  to  the  outcome.  And  what  a  relief 
it  is  when  the  bears  become  hospitable  and  make  Golden 
Hair  welcome  instead  of  punishing  her!  At  last,  when 
the  bears  escort  her  safely  home,  a  universal  sigh  of  con- 
tent follows  from  the  children.  What  was  so  near  a  tragedy 
is  averted  by  the  gentle  goodness  and  beauty  of  Golden  Hair. 
Her  good  qualities  overcome  even  the  savage  instincts  of 
the  three  bears  and  convert  them  into  delightful  hosts. 
The  children  feel  that  "all  is  well  that  ends  well." 

The  old  form  of  this  tale  brought  the  three  bears  home 
hungry  and  ferocious  and  left  the  small  readers  in  tears  over 
the  untimely  death  of  poor  little  Golden  Hair.  This  form, 
no  doubt,  was  more  in  accordance  with  bear  nature  than 
the  revised  version,  but  it  certainly  was  far  less  satisfactory 
to  read  and  far  less  satisfactory  in  its  effects  upon  children. 

So,  too,  with  Little  Red  Riding  Hood.  What  person 
with  a  spark  of  humanity  could  fail  to  rejoice  that  this  tale, 
as  modernized,  metes  out  justice  to  the  wicked  old  wolf 
before  his  evil  designs  can  be  carried  out?  The  story  loses 
nothing  of  dramatic  power  by  having  the  woodmen  arrive, 
not  a  second  too  soon,  to  save  both  Little  Red  Riding  Hood 
and  the  grandmother. 


Third  Year  Reading  113 

The  element  of  improbability  in  the  revisions  is  no  draw- 
back. Imagination,  at  this  period,  makes  all  things  probable 
in  a  story.  Witness  the  enjoyment  children  have  found 
in  Alice  in  Wonderland  and  in  The  Wonderful  Wizard  of  Oz. 

14.  Poems.  Poems  for  the  third  year  of  school  life 
should  be  chosen  with  discretion.  There  are  great  numbers 
of  nature  poems  which  are  very  desirable,  many  of  them 
weaving  a  beautiful  story  around  some  flower  or  other  natural 
object.  Good  examples  of  these  are  Discontent,  by  Sarah 
Orne  Jewett;  the  Kaiserblumen,  by  Celia  Thaxter;  and  The 
Mountain  and  the  Squirrel,  by  Emerson.  There  are,  also, 
almost  countless  delightful  poems  treating  directly  of  child 
life,  as  Pittypat  and  Tippy  Toe  and  Wynken,  Blynken  and 
Nod,  by  Eugene  Field;  The  Land  of  Counterpane  and 
Travel,  by  Robert  Louis  Stevenson ;  The  Children's  Hour,  by 
Longfellow;  In  School  Days  and  The  Barefoot  Boy,  by 
Whittier;  The  First  Snowfall,  by  Lowell.  In  fact,  there  are 
so  many  good  poems  that  one  hardly  knows  where  to  stop 
in  choosing. 

Care  should  always  be  taken  to  see  that  the  poems  are 
suited  to  the  age  of  the  children,  are  more  or  less  dramatic 
and  couched  in  beautiful  language,  and  leave  no  bad  effects. 
Teach  the  name  of  the  author  with  the  poem,  and  often  have 
select  parts  memorized.  See  Memorizing  Selections,  pages 
158-160.     The  selections  should  be  learned  accurately. 

15.  Supplementary  Reading.  We  have  already  given  a 
suggestive  list  of  desirable  books  to  read  to  primary  chil- 
dren. The  ones  that  the  children  may  read  for  themselves 
must  be  simpler  in  content  and  style  than  those  which  are 
read  to  them,  else  they  soon  become  discouraged  and  lose 
their  ambition  to  read  for  themselves. 

During  the  third  year,  the  independent  reading,  for  the 
first  two  terms,  should  be  provided  for  and  carried  for- 
ward in  a  manner  similar  to  that  commended  for  the  second 
grade.  However,  if  the  class  makes  the  progress  expected 
during  the  last  term  of  this  year,  the  children  will  be  able 
to  read  some  books  almost  without  aid. 


114  Public  School  Methods 

During  the  third  year,  children  should  read  through 
three  or  four  third  readers,  with  frequent  reviews  of  the 
more  difficult  portions  and  of  the  parts  that  call  forth  the 
greatest  variety  of  dramatic  expression.  Children  of  the 
third  grade  may  read  by  themselves  such  books  as  the  three 
volumes  of  In  Mythland,  Helen  Beckwith ;  Children  of  the 
Palm  Lands,  Alice  E.  Allen;  Bobtail  Dixie,  Abbie  N.  Smith 
and  Colonial  Children,  Mara  L.  Piatt,  all  of  which  are  pub- 
lished  by   the    Educational   Publishing   Company,    Chicago. 

The  Child  of  Urbino,  Nurnberg  Stove,  A  Dog  of  Flanders, 
Louise  de  la  Ramee,  published  by  the  Educational  Publish- 
ing Company,  Chicago;  Muloch's  Little  Lame  Prince,  edited 
by  E.  Norris,  Educational  Publishing  Company,  Chicago; 
The  Seven  Little  Sisters  who  Live  on  the  Round  Ball  and 
Ten  Boys  who  Lived  on  the  Road  from  Long  Ago  to  Now, 
Jane  Andrews,  Ginn  &  Co.,  Chicago;  and  The  Tree-Dwellers 
and  The  Early  Cave-Men,  by  Ruth  Dopp,  Rand,  McNally 
&  Co.,  Chicago,  are  suitable  books  varying  somewhat  in 
difficulty. 

For  pupils  who  can  read  a  little  more  and  for  the  use 
of  fourth  year  classes,  the  following  books  are  excellent, 
though  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  ability  of  children 
to  read  intelligently  differs  exceedingly,  even  in  the  same 
class,  and  that  what  may  be  easy  reading  for  one  locality 
would  be  very  difficult  for  children  of  the  same  age  in  another : 
Hans  Anderson's  Fairy  Tales,  two  volumes,  edited  by  Miss 
Stickney,  Aesop's  Fables,  edited  by  Miss  Stickney,  The  King 
of  the  Golden  River,  by  Ruskin,  Ginn  &  Co.,  Chicago;  Black 
Beauty,  by  Anna  Sewell,  and  A  Child's  Garden  of  Verses, 
by  Stevenson,  Rand,  McNally  &  Co.,  Chicago;  Eight  Cousins 
and  Little  Men,  by  Louisa  M.  Alcott,  and  Nelly's  Silver  Mine, 
by  Helen  Hunt  Jackson,  Little,  Brown  &  Co.,  Boston.1 

16.  Reading  and  Study.  Children  should  begin  in  this 
year  to  see  how  reading  helps  other  subjects.     To  this  end, 

1  These  publishers  and  many  others  offer  so  many  excellent  books  for  children 
that  we  can  only  name  a  few  as  types  of  style  and  grading,  leaving  the  teacher  and 
school  officers  to  add  to  the  list  as  needed.  They  will  send  catalogues  containing 
descriptions  of  the  various  editions  and  price  list  upon  request. 


Third  Year  Reading  115 

use  now  and  hereafter,  every  text-book  to  supplement  the 
reading  book.  Have  the  little  arithmetical  problems  read 
aloud  from  the  board  and  from  the  book,  and  lead  the  child 
to  see  that  unless  he  can  read  these  correctly  and  under- 
standing^ he  need  not  expect  to  do  the  work  required;  so 
with  other  subjects,  until  he  sees  that  the  first  step  in  any 
lesson  is  to  read  correctly.  If  this  idea  is  once  clearly  demon- 
strated to  a  child,  he  has  a  new  and  strong  incentive  to 
mental  effort.  All  reading  from  text-books,  however,  must 
be  done  with  precisely  the  same  care  as  that  of  the  regular 
reading  lesson.  Thought  interpretation  and  correct  expres- 
sion are  demanded  here  as  in  the  lesson  assigned  from  the 
regular  reading  book.  Reading  is  reading,  no  matter  what 
the  book  or  the  time. 

17.  Racial  Literature.  During  the  last  term  of  the 
third  year  in  reading,  pupils  may  read  with  great  pleasure 
and  profit  stories  and  poems  relating  to  other  times,  coun- 
tries and  races  than  their  own.  Children  are  always  intensely 
interested  in  what  other  children  do  and  say;  hence,  the 
introduction  to  racial  literature  should  be  in  the  form  of 
stories  and  poems  of  children,  in  order  to  take  advantage 
of  the  true  point  of  contact,  and  to  rouse  the  interest  that 
is  inherent  rather  than  developed. 

The  section  of  Longfellow's  Hiawatha,  which  so  beauti- 
fully depicts  the  childhood  of  the  Indian  boy,  may  now 
be  read  intelligently  and  will  be  much  enjoyed.  Nikolina, 
The  Leak  in  the  Dyke,  Piccola  and  The  Boy  Van  Dyke  are 
other  poems  in  this  line  full  of  interest  for  the  children. 
Children  of  the  Palm  Lands,  Clovernook  Children,  Children 
of  the  Cold,  Children  of  Many  Nations  and  Colonial  Children 
are  all  prose  types  of  this  kind  of  literature.  They  also  form 
the  best  material  possible  for  developing  a  love  for  good 
biography  and  history.1 

Fortunately,  there  is  an  abundance  of  this  kind  of  liter- 
ature— poems    and    entire    books    that    give   really   graphic 

i  A  few  books  in  the  above  list  are  too  difficult  for  third  grade  pupils  to  read  by 
themselves,  but  they  are  given  as  types  of  thought-content. 


116  Public  School  Methods 

pictures  of  racial  differences  in  physique,  clothing,  home 
life,  customs  and  habits. 

The  early  introduction  of  permanent  literature,  and  read- 
ing matter  based  upon  topics  of  vital  interest  to  children, 
cannot  be  too  highly  commended.  This  is  what  makes  it 
worth  while  to  try  to  read.  This  is  what  inculcates  the 
reading  habit  in  children.  This  is  what  gives  them  a  happy 
introduction  to  the  great  world  of  literature  and  develops 
their  interest,  while  still  but  children,  in  libraries  and  in  the 
use  of  the  books  they  contain. 

To  create  such  an  appetite  for  the  best  reading  that  a 
taste  for  the  lower  forms  is  impossible  at  any  time  of  the 
pupil's  life  should  be  the  one  controlling  thought  of  every 
teacher.  The  work  must  begin  early,  and  only  that  which 
is  free  from  evil  taint  in  word  or  suggestion  may  be  allowed 
to  come  into  the  hands  of  any  pupil  during  his  school  life. 
With  such  early  training,  a  young  woman  or  a  young  man 
will  not  often  deliberately  choose  bad  books  for  companions 
when  school  days  are  of  the  past. 

Cautions,  (i)  Prepare  the  way  for  the  introduction  of 
permanent  literature  by  establishing  a  good  vocabulary;  by 
telling  and  reading  to  children  many  interesting  things  that 
will  arouse  an  interest  in  matters  outside  of  themselves  and 
their  limited  experiences;  by  developing  the  general  intelli- 
gence; by  waiting  for  the  right  degree  of  maturity. 

(2)  Take  the  child  where  you  find  him,  make  use  of  what 
he  really  knows,  build  securely  upon  that,  hold  high  ideals 
of  what  is  in  store  for  him,  and  let  him  come  naturally  to 
the  point  where  he  may  be  expected  to  assimilate  a  good 
portion  of  what  belongs  to  him  in  the  way  of  pure  liter- 
ature. 

(3)  Bear  in  mind  that  the  child  must  read  much  in  order 
to  read  easily  and  intelligently;  also,  that  he  should  read 
fluently  in  any  one  grade  before  he  attempts  the  next. 

(4)  To  be  able  to  read  and  not  to  have  a  love  for  good 
literature  is  dangerous;  to  be  able  to  read  and  have  a  love 
for  bad  books  is  calamitous;  to  be  able  to  read  and  have 


Third  Year  Reading  117 

an  unswerving  desire  for  only  the  best  that  books  contain 
is  the  safeguard  of  youth,  the  solace  of  age. 

18.  Reading  as  an  Artistic  Accomplishment.  Because  of 
its  lack  of  utility,  reading  as  a  social  accomplishment  is  not 
taught.  Reading  as  a  means  of  giving  intellectual  pleasure 
to  others,  in  private  or  in  public,  is  hardly  considered  in 
these  days.  Reading  as  the  source  of  combined  culture 
and  pleasure,  in  which  all  the  members  of  a  family  might 
join,  has,  seemingly,  gone  out  of  fashion.  The  members 
of  the  family  occupy  themselves  with  different  pursuits 
and  the  ties  of  family  and  of  home  are  sensibly  weakened. 

To  permit  reading  aloud  to  become  a  lost  art  is  deplor- 
able. Never  before  were  there  so  many  books  worth  read- 
ing aloud.  Never  before  has  there  been  greater  need  to 
strengthen  home  ties  and  make  the  family  interests  a  unit. 
Therefore,  we  urge  teachers  to  do  everything  possible  to 
awaken  among  their  pupils  an  appreciation  of  oral  reading 
as  an  artistic  accomplishment  of  great  and  lasting  value. 

The  first  step  toward  this  desired  end  is  for  teachers  to 
become  good  readers  themselves  and  to  make  frequent 
occasions  to  read  aloud  to  their  pupils.  This  proves  the 
pleasure  that  a  good  reader  is  able  to  give  to  others  and 
establishes  a  standard  of  good  reading  for  immature  pupils 
to  follow.  As  they  grow  older  and  have  more  experience 
in  reading  aloud,  they  will  cease  to  be  imitators  and  their 
own  individuality  will  be  stamped  upon  their  reading. 

The  next  step  is  to  encourage  pupils  to  read  before  the 
school  and  to  take  things  home  to  read  to  the  circle  there. 
Select  stories,  poems,  anecdotes,  fables — anything  that  is 
proper  in  idea  and  language  and  that  has  in  itself  power 
to  hold  the  interest  of  the  reader  and  his  listeners.  Help 
the  pupil  in  private  with  his  selection,  and  then  let  him 
read  it  as  a  part  of  the  morning  or  afternoon  opening 
exercises. 

These  independent  readings  have  already  been  discussed 
at  considerable  length,  but  their  value  is  too  great  to  make 
necessary  an  excuse  for  repetition.     During  the  third  year, 


118  Public  School  Methods 

and  thereafter,  such  exercises  should  become  more  and 
more  frequent  as  a  regular  part  of  the  school  program. 

Pupils  should  be  made  to  feel  that  people  of  genuine 
culture  and  refinement  enjoy  hearing  a  good  reader  as 
much  as  they  enjoy  hearing  good  music.  This  thought 
should  be  instilled  by  practical  illustrations  from  the  neigh- 
borhood, by  the  evident  pleasure  the  patrons  get  from  the 
Friday  readings,  by  quoting  complimentary  remarks  on  the 
reading  of  the  school.  If  these  compliments  have  been 
fully  earned  they  will  be  encouraging  and  breed  no  vanity. 
It  will  be  helpful  to  teach  what  some  distinguished  people 
have  said  about  good  reading,  especially  if  the  teacher  tells 
the  pupils  enough  about  the  men  to  make  them  seem  real 
and  to  give  weight  to  their  opinions.  The  following  quota- 
tions are  good: 

If  I  could  have  a  son  or  daughter  possessed  of  but  one  accomplish- 
ment in  life,  it  should  be  that  of  good  reading. — John  Ruskin. 

Of  equal  honor  with  him  who  writes  a  grand  poem  is  he  who 
reads  it  grandly. — Henry  W.  Longfellow. 

People  of  taste  and  culture  cannot  afford  to  be  wanting  in  so 
rare  and  elegant  an  accomplishment  as  good  reading. — E.  H. 
Chapin,  D.D. 

A  good  reader  summons  the  mighty  dead  from  their  tombs  and 
makes  them  speak  to  us. — Ralph  Waldo  Emerson. 

No  branch  of  study  has  a  greater  educating  power  than  good 
reading,  and  yet  we  have  very  few  who  can  read  even  intelligibly. — 
Horace  Mann. 

If  the  crowns  of  all  the  kingdoms  of  the  empire  were  laid  down 
at  my  feet  in  exchange  for  my  books  and  my  love  of  reading,  I  would 
spurn  them  all. — Fenelon. 

19.  Causes  of  Poor  Reading  in  Schools.  Leaving  out 
of  the  question  such  causes  as  defective  vocal  organs  and 
extreme  nervousness,  the  following  are  chief  among  the 
causes  of  poor  reading: 

(i)  Teachers  fail  to  appreciate  the  value  of  reading  as 
the  foundation  study. 

(2)  Teachers  are  not,  themselves,  good  readers. 

(3)  Children  are  hurried  from  one  grade  to  another  too 
rapidly. 


Third  Year  Reading  119 

(4)  Interest  is  lost,  through  lack  of  variety  and  lack  of 
dramatic  element  in  the  reading  given. 

(5)  The  imagination  does  not  have  sufficient  exercise. 

(6)  Teachers  often  lack  the  knowledge  necessary  to  make 
difficult  parts  of  reading  lessons  clear  to  the  pupils. 

(7)  Teachers  are  not  skilful  questioners. 

(8)  They  do  not  secure  and  use  illustrative  material 
properly. 

(9)  The  methods  are  often  poor  and  monotonous. 

(10)  Teacher  and  pupils  sometimes  are  lacking  in  sym- 
pathy, and  therefore  fail  to  appreciate  and  properly  express 
the  feeling  in  the  selection. 

(11)  Not  enough  supplementary  reading  is  provided. 

(12)  Children  are  not  made  to  feel  the  need  of  effort  in 
reading  anything  outside  of  regular  reading  books. 

(13)  Vocal  powers  are  not  sufficiently  trained  by  means 
of  exercises  for  articulation,  inflections,  emphasis  and  voice 
projection. 

(14)  Selections  are  often  too  difficult  for  the  pupils  to 
comprehend,  and  thus  much  time  is  wasted  which  could 
be  spent  to  advantage  in  reading  many  selections  of  simpler 
grade. 

(15)  Sometimes  teachers  have  interest,  but  are  ignorant 
of  good  methods;  sometimes  they  understand  methods,  but 
lack  the  interest  needed  to  use  them  properly.  No  real 
progress  in  reading  will  be  made  by  a  school  unless  interest 
and  skill  are  combined. 

20.  Material  for  Drills.  Realizing  that  definite  helps 
along  specific  lines  are  not  always  easy  to  find,  a  few  pages 
are  added  for  the  purpose  of  saving  teachers  a  wearisome 
search  for  needed  material. 

As  opportunity  occurs,  teachers  should  add  to  the  given 
lists  from  their  own  discoveries  or  from  printed  articles 
pertinent  to  the  subjects  for  which  help  is  needed.  A  care- 
ful reader  of  the  foremost  educational  papers  will  not 
need  to  wait  long  for  valuable  suggestions  from  practical 
teachers. 


120  Public  School  Methods 

Drill    Exercise    for    Articulation,      (i)  First    Year. 

Say  "Andrew,  and  you,  and  you,  and  you." 

Would  you  say  a  jay  is  a  blue  bird  or  a  bluebird  ? 

Twine  three  twines  thrice  three  times. 

If  three  tiny  tots  went  out  to  tea, 

And  each  little  tot  took  kittens  three, 

And  each  tot  and  kitten  drank  three  cups  of  tea, 

How  many  threes  do  you  think  there  would  be? 

Twisting  twines  or  twining  twists, 
Each  is  hard  upon  the  wrists. 

Little  Tiny  Toes  had  ten  tiny  little  toes. 

Kitten  Katten  went  to  Stratton  on  a  summer  day; 
Kitten  Katten  with  no  hat  on  heard  a  donkey  bray. 

Funny  Fanny  Flynn  fried  four  fat  fish  for  five  frightened  fishermen. 

(2)  Second  Year. 

Gayly  chattering  to  the  clattering 
Of  the  brown  nuts  downward  pattering, 
Leap  the  squirrels  red  and  gray; 
On  the  grass  land,  on  the  fallow, 
Drop  the  apples  red  and  yellow; 
Drop  the  russet  pears  and  mellow, 
Drop  the  red  leaves  all  the  day. 

Betty  Botter  bought  some  butter, 

"But,"  said  she,  "this  butter's  bitter; 

If  I  put  it  in  my  batter, 

It  will  make  my  batter  bitter; 

But  a  bit  of  better  butter 

Will  but  make  my  batter  better." 

So  she  bought  a  bit  of  butter, 

Better  than  the  bitter  butter, 

Made  her  bitter  batter  better. 

So  it  was  better  Betty  Botter 

Bought  a  bit  of  better  butter. 


Third  Year  Reading  121 

Sam  Slick's  sloppy  shoes  and  socks  shocked  simple  Susan  at  the 
shoe  shop. 

With  the  skin  he  made  him  mittens; 
Made  them  with  fur  side  inside; 
Made  them  with  the  skin  side  outside; 
He,  to  get  the  warm  side  inside, 
Put  the  skin  side  outside; 
He,  to  get  the  cold  side  outside, 
Put  the  warm  side,  fur  side  inside. 
That's  why  he  put  the  fur  side  inside 
Why  he  put  the  skin  side  outside, 
Why  he  turned  them  inside  outside. 

A  pied  piper  blew  a  penny  pipe  for  a  penny  pieman  and  a  penny 
pieman  gave  a  penny  pie  for  the  pied  piper's  penny  pipe. 

Slender  Sam  Slimber,  sleek  and  slim,  sawed  six  slender  saplings 
into  six  slender  sticks. 

Did  you?  Could  you?  Might  you?  Would  you?  Don't  you? 
Should  you? 

Let  ten  little  men  in  seconds  ten  find  out  by  their  own  brain, 
Ten  times  ten  and  ten  times  ten  and  ten  times  ten  again. 

She  sells  sea-shells.     Does  she  sell  sea-shells?     Sea-shells  she  sells. 
Is  this,  then,  the  team  that  Thomas  tried? 

(3)  Third  Year. 

Had  I  strength  in  my  wrists 

Like  a  twister  that  twists, 

I'd  face  all  the  frosts  and  face  all  the  mists, 

I'd  swim  the  salt  seas  or  bestride  a  brisk  breeze, 

I'd  cross  prickly  heather  in  all  sorts  of  weather, 

Just  to  lengthen  the  rope  of  Pat's  pig  in  a  poke. 

Don't  you  think  the  lasts  last  well? 

Theophilus  Thistle,  the  successful  thistle-sifter,  in  sifting  a  sieve- 
ful  of  unsifted  thistles,  thrust  three  thousand  thistles  through  the 
thick  of  his  thumb. 


122  Public  School  Methods 

Little  Peter  Peterkin  made  a  'warm  fire  of  peat, 

Then  the  warm  fire  of  peat  warmed  Peter  Peterkin's  feet. 

When  a  twister  a-twisting  would  twist  him  a  twist,  in  twisting 
the  twist  he  three  twines  doth  intwist;  but  if  one  of  the  twines  that 
he  twisteth  untwist,  the  twine  that  untwisteth  untwisteth  the  twist. 

In  far-off  Tokyo,  I  had  a  cup  of  Mocha,  O; 
A  cup  of  Mocha,  O,  had  I  in  far-off  Toyko. 

In  the  lonely  Isle  of  Wight. 
In  goat  and  otter  skins  bedight, 
Lost  in  a  stormy,  wind-swept  bight, 
I  had  a  sickening,  freezing  fright. 

Cross  Christopher  Cross  is  full  of  crotchets,  crosses  and  crazy 
idiosyncrasies. 

Amidst  the  mists  and  coldest  frosts,  with  doubled  fists  and 
stoutest  boasts,  he  still  insists  the  sheeted  ghosts  are  naught  but 
icy  snow-clad  posts. 

Round  and  round  the  rugged  rocks  the  ragged  rascal  ran. 

If  you  stick  a  stick  across  a  stick 

Or  stick  a  cross  across  a  stick. 

Or  cross  a  stick  across  a  stick, 

Or  stick  a  cross  across  a  cross, 

Or  cross  a  cross  across  a  stick, 

Or  cross  a  cross  across  a  cross, 

Or  cross  a  crossed  stick  across  a  cross, 

Or  cross  a  crossed  stick  across  a  stick, 

Or  cross  a  crossed  stick  across  a  crossed  stick, 

Would  that  be  an  acrostic? 

21.  Aids.  (a)  Books  for  Teachers.  (i)  First  Year  Only. 
Primary  Reading.     Educational  Publishing  Company. 

Suggestions  to  Teachers  in  The  Holton  Primer,  Teacher's  Edition. 
Rand,  McNally  &  Co. 

Suggestions  to  Teachers  in  the  Thought  Reader.  SummeiS. 
Ginn  &  Co. 

The  Werner  Primer.     Taylor.     American  Book  Company. 

(2)  All  Grades.  Prefaces  to  The  Sprague  Classic  Readers.  Edu- 
cational Publishing  Company. 

Reading:    How  to  Teach  It.     Arnold.     Silver,  Burdett  &  Co. 


Third  Year  Reading  123 

How  to  Teach  Reading  in  the  Public  Schools.  S.  H.  Clark.  Scott, 
Foresman  &  Co.,  Chicago. 

Waymarks  for  Teachers.    Sarah  L.  Arnold.     Silver,  Burdett  &  Co. 

New  Education  Series.     Book  I. 

Rational  Method  of  Reading.  Ward.  (Ward  Manual).  Silver, 
Burdett  &  Co. 

How  to  Read  Aloud.     S.  H.  Clark.     Charles  Scribner's  Sons. 

Special  Method  for  Reading.    C.  A.  McMurry.    Macmillan  Company. 

Talks  on  Pedagogics.  Francis  W.  Parker.  A.  S.  Barnes  &  Co., 
New  York. 

Essentials  of  Teaching  Reading.  E.  B.  Sherman  &  A.  A.  Reed. 
University  Publishing  Co.,   Lincoln,  Neb. 

Reading  in  Public  Schools.  Thos.  H.  Briggs  &  Lotus  D.  Coff- 
man.     Row,  Peterson  &  Co.,  Chicago. 

(b)  Books  for  Pupils.  The  Children's  Hour.  Eva  Marsh 
Tappan.     Books  I — VIII.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

Poems  Every  Child  Should  Know.  Mary  E.  Burt.  Doubleday, 
Page  &  Co.,  New  York. 

Songs  of  Treetop  and  Meadow.  McMurry  &  Cook.  Public  School 
Publishing  Co.,  Bloomington,  111. 

Classic  Stories  for  Little  Ones.  Lida  B.  McMurry.  Public  School 
Publishing  Co.,  Bloomington,  111. 

Heart  of  Oak  Books.  Charles  Eliot  Norton.  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co., 
Boston. 

The  Thought  Reader.     Book  I.     Maud  Summers.     Ginn  &  Co. 

The  Summers  Readers.  Maud  Summers.  Frank  D.  Beattys  & 
Co.,  New  York. 

The  Aldine  Readers.  Frank  E.  Spaulding  &  Catherine  T.  Bryce. 
5  books  and  Manual.     Newson  &  Co.,  Chicago. 


TEST  QUESTIONS 

i.  Contrast  the  knowledge  of  reading  which  a  child  has 
at  the  end  of  his  second  year  with  that  which  he  has  at 
the  end  of  his  third  year. 

2.  Compare  the  purposes  of  third  year  reading  with 
those  of  the  second  year. 

3.  Why  are  breathing  exercises  essential  to  successful 
oral  reading? 

4.  Give  specific  directions  for  conducting  a  breathing 
exercise. 


124  Public  School  Methods 

5.  Of  what  advantage  to  the  pupil's  expression  are  good 
physical  habits  while  he  is  reading?  Why  is  an  indolent 
attitude — half  standing,  half  leaning  upon  a  desk — objec- 
tionable? 

6.  In  rule  one  on  page  98  occurs  the  expression,  "but 
not  slowly  enough  to  break  the  phrasing."  What  is  meant 
by  the  expression  break  the  phrasing?    Answer  fully. 

7.  How  many  and  what  rules  for  pronunciation  is  it 
wise  to  give  to  third  year  pupils? 

8.  Discuss  the  use  of  sight  reading  under  the  follow- 
ing heads:  (a)  its  value,  and  (b)  the  methods  of  using  it 
in  class.  Test  yourself  and  report  how  many  words  ahead 
of  your  voice  your  eyes  can  read.  How  does  your  power 
in  this  respect  compare  with  the  power  of  your  pupils  in 
the  third  year?  If  you  are  not  teaching,  test  a  few  of  your 
friends  and  give  the  result  of  your  experiments. 

9.  Discuss  the  relation  of  reading  to  other  lessons.  What 
advantages  can  you  see  in  having  the  children  occasionally 
read  from  their  other  text-books? 

10.  Classify  the  causes  of  poor  reading  as  given  on  pages 
118-119  in  such  a  way  as  to  show  those  for  which  the  teacher 
is  primarily  responsible  and  those  for  which  the  responsi- 
bility rests  more  directly  upon  parents  and  the  school  system. 
Which  of  these  causes  should  be  eradicated  first?  Do  you 
think  any  of  these  causes  have  affected  your  teaching  of 
reading  or  will  affect  it?  If  so,  what  difficulties  do  you 
see  in  the  way  of  removing  those  causes? 


CHAPTER  FIVE 

LANGUAGE 

1.  The  Problem  Stated.1  When  children  enter  school  at 
five  or  six  years  of  age,  they  have  acquired  a  large  number 
of  spoken  words  and  idioms;  but  their  knowledge  of  English 
is  restricted  from  lack  of  experience  calling  out  the  necessity 
for  more  varied  expression,  and  from  ignorance  of  correct 
English  forms.     Of  written  language  they  have  none. 

As  to  the  best  means  of  teaching  language  to  pupils  of 
the  primary  grades,  hardly  two  authorities  can  be  found 
who  agree.  It  will  be  seen,  however,  if  the  preceding  state- 
ments are  true,  that  definite  means  of  some  kind  must  be 
provided  by  which  experience  may  be  enlarged  and  knowl- 
edge of  language  forms  be  supplied  to  meet  the  growing 
desire  for  expression. 

It  must  be  admitted  that  the  problem  is  a  difficult  one 
to  solve,  and  is  made  much  more  so  by  the  unnecessary 
formality  with  which  a  majority  of  teachers  clothe  the  work. 
Others  fail  to  get  good  results  because  they  work  without 
a  definite  aim  and  without  a  clear  understanding  of  what 
is  needed.  Their  efforts  are  spasmodic  and  they  reach  out 
in  a  haphazard  way  after  something  of  which  they  have  but 
the  vaguest  comprehension. 

Many  of  the  published  works  upon  language  teaching 
are  so  made  that  they  point  out  one  avenue  of  approach, 
making  little  or  no  effort  to  show  other  roads  just  as  desirable. 

2.  The  First  Step.  The  tiuth  that  lies  at  the  founda- 
tion of  all  successful  language  teaching  is  that  language  was 
invented  because  of  the  need  to  express  thoughts  and 
emotions  and  to  preserve  records  for  convenient  reference. 
This  being  admitted,   it  follows  without  question  that  the 

i  Many  directions  and  plans  bearing  directly  upon  the  teaching  of  both  oral  and 
written  language  in  the  primary  grades  will  be  found  in  the  chapters  devoted  to 
teaching  reading,  and  the  teacher  is  urged  to  review  these  chapters  in  connection 
with  the  study  of  this  one. 

125 


126  Public  School  Methods 

first  step  in  the  work  of  language  teaching  is  to  arouse 
thoughts  and  to  inspire  emotions  such  as  will  stimulate 
heart  and  brain  and  force  the  child  to  ask  questions  or  to 
utter  spontaneous  exclamations,   statements  or  commands. 

When  any  form  of  the  sentence  bursts  from  the  child 
because  he  has  gained  a  new  thought  or  emotion  and  feels 
the  need  for  expression,  the  teacher  may  be  sure  that  interest 
is  at  a  white  heat.  The  "psychological  moment"  has  arrived 
in  which  effective  teaching  may  be  done.  Unless  this  point 
of  contact  between  teacher  and  pupil  is  secured,  the  work 
is  usually  mere  lip-service,  a  smatter  of  terms  with  the  soul 
left  out. 

3.  The  Child's  Equipment.  Prior  to  his  first  school  life, 
the  child  has  gained  much  intimate  knowledge  of  the  home 
relations  and  family  ties.  He  knows  the  household  routine 
and  has  decided  preferences  in  matters  of  food,  drink  and 
clothing.  He  has  learned  games  to  play  and  the  times  of 
year  when  they  are  in  favor.  He  knows  something  of  "the 
farm,  the  orchard,  the  workship  or  whatever  most  interests 
his  father  and  occupies  his  time. 

If  his  home  is  in  the  country,  probably  he  has  raced  after 
countless  butterflies  and  has  had  some  unpleasant  experi- 
ences with  bees  and  wasps.  He  may  have  seen  snakes  and 
toads  cast  their  skins,  and  tadpoles  develop  into  frogs.  He 
has  learned  something  of  birds  and  their  ways;  has  exulted 
in  the  power  of  wind  and  storm;  has  lazily  wondered  over 
the  shifting  clouds;  has  been  thankful  for  bright  stars  and 
the  silver  moon  that  peeped  into  his  darkened  room  at  night. 
In  various  ways  he  has  also  learned  something  of  authority, 
obedience  and  the  rights  of  others.  In  fact,  he  has  been  a 
living  interrogation  point,  with  "What  is  it?",  "Where  is 
it?",  "What  is  it  for?"  perpetually  dropping  from  the  tip 
of  his  tongue,  and  all  because  his  mind  was  intensely  wide- 
awake. 

What  has  been  the  foundation  for  rapid  development  in 
the  use  of  language  before  the  child  enters  the  school  is 
natural,    spontaneous   and    far    too    valuable    to    be    pushed 


Language  127 

aside  by  the  formal  routine  that  obtains  in  too  many  modern 
schoolrooms.  When  all  is  said  and  done,  it  is  difficult  to 
improve  upon  nature's  plan  for  the  development  of  her 
boys  and  girls,  and  the  closer  we  teachers  can  keep  to  her 
methods  of  teaching,  the  more  truly  successful  our  work 
is  sure  to  be. 

4.  The  Teacher's  Part.  The  child's  mind  being  thus 
stored  with  bits  of  knowledge,  it  remains  for  the  teacher  to 
help  him  recall  this  knowledge  and  to  add  new  information 
that  will  be  properly  related  to  the  old.  To  expand  and 
classify  all  this  knowledge  to  make  it  ready  for  use  when 
needed  calls  for  the  definite  use  of  language  as  a  means  of 
expression. 

"  In  every  department  of  teaching  begin  with  the  known 
and  proceed  to  the  related  unknown."  Children  will  not 
long  stand  dumb  as  statues  before  a  bright-faced,  alert, 
sympathetic  teacher  even  on  the  first  day  of  school.  Timidity 
will  be  banished  by  interest  and  sympathy,  and  all  but 
the  very  shyest  children  will  talk  with  a  reasonable  degree 
of  freedom  and  facility.  This,  then,  is  the  beginning  of  the 
school  language  work,  the  informal  preparation  for  more 
definite  teaching  of  new  words  and  phrases. 

At  the  outset,  if  the  teacher  is  able  to  get  the  children 
to  talk  freely,  she  should  be  careful  not  to  chill  their  efforts 
by  many  or  harsh  criticisms.  The  most  successful  teacher 
of  language  to  young  children  is  the  one  who,  without 
embarrassing  the  speaker,  is  able  to  suggest  the  correct  form 
when  the  pupil's  language  is  inadequate,  and  to  replace  an 
incorrect  idiom  by  a  happier  expression.  Nothing  should 
be  done  to  repress  the  desire  for  expression.  Every  new 
word  gained,  every  new  sentence  formed,  is  a  distinct  step 
gained  in  the  use  of  oral  language. 

Things  endowed  with  life  and  motion  more  readily  gain 
the  child's  interest,  hold  his  attention  and  call  forth  spon- 
taneous expressions,  because  they  awaken  thought  more 
rapidly  and  freely.  Toys,  games  and  stories  are  second  only 
in  interest  to  these.     The  worth  of  any  exercise  is  destroyed, 


128  Public  School  Method* 

however  valuable  the  material,  unless  there  is  motive  for 
expression — a  real  motive  which  appeals  to  the  children. 
Set   and  formal  exercises,   therefore,   should  be  avoided. 

5.  Every  Lesson  a  Language  Lesson.  With  language, 
as  with  penmanship,  many  of  the  unsatisfactory  results 
are  directly  due  to  the  separation  of  language,  as  a  study, 
from  the  other  subjects  of  the  school  curriculum. 

The  truth  is,  every  lesson  of  the  day  should  be  to  the 
child  a  lesson  in  language.  Every  sentence  used,  yes,  every 
word  used  by  the  teacher  in  her  entire  intercourse  with 
her  pupils  should  be  a  model  which  they  may  safely  follow. 
This  is  all  the  more  imperative  from  the  fact  that  children 
who  really  love  their  teacher — as  a  majority  of  primary 
children  do — are  prone  to  copy  her  general  mode  of  speech, 
her  style  of  pronunciation,  even  her  faults  and  peculiar 
mannerisms.  Many  children,  too,  come  from  homes  wherein 
pure,  refined  English  is  seldom  heard,  and  to  these  the 
teacher's  example  is  all-important.  For  these  reasons,  she 
needs  to  be  always  on  guard  lest  in  this  regard  her  own 
heedless  habits  lead  her  pupils  astray. 

6.  Language  Related  to  Other  Subjects.  Every  new  fact 
that  the  child  learns  calls  for  appropriate  language  in  which 
to  express  it.  It  is  a  fundamental  necessity,  therefore,  that 
his  daily  life  in  school  shall  be  filled  with  real  and  interesting 
experiences,  and  that  these  experiences  be  closely  related. 
Arithmetic,  nature  study,  literature  and  constructive  efforts 
furnish  the  means  out  of  which  these  experiences  may  arise. 
Therefore,  the  teacher,  when  supplying  the  right  words  and 
sentences  to  express  the  new  thoughts  or  emotions  and  their 
new  relations,  is  giving  a  valuable  lesson  in  oral  language, 
as  well  as  adding  to  the  child's  store  of  information  in  the 
various  lines  that  the  school  routine  calls  for.  And  when 
any  of  these  words  or  sentences  are  put  into  script  or  print 
for  a  child  to  read  or  copy,  a  lesson  in  written  language 
is  taught. 

A  written  summary  of  the  calendar  work  at  the  close  of 
the   month,    for    instance,    written    upon    the   board,    would 


Language  129 

supply  material  not  only  for  an  excellent  reading  lesson, 
but  a  language  lesson,  as  well;  and  if  the  interest  aroused 
is  sufficient  to  lead  the  pupils  to  desire  to  give  original 
written  expression  to  any  one  of  these  experiences,  the  best 
motive  is  supplied  for  beginning  written  composition.  The 
immediate  result  may  be  only  a  sentence,  faulty  and  pro- 
duced with  difficulty,  but  the  right  relation  has  been  estab- 
lished between  thought  and  language  form,  between  desire 
and  effort. 

7.  Undesirable  Lessons  and  Their  Correctives.  Lessons 
in  oral  language  are  daily  given  to  the  child,  most  informally, 
upon  the  school  playground,  at  home  and  when  he  is  in 
the  street.  Indeed,  the  unconscious  tuition  of  the  street 
is  one  of  the  most  difficult  things  that  conscientious  teachers 
of  English  have  to  overcome,  because  it  is  so  varied  and 
dramatic.  The  excited  pantomime,  the  posters  in  flaming 
colors,  the  novel  slang,  obscenity  and  profanity,  all  these 
sink  deep  into  the  impressionable  minds  of  primary  chil- 
dren. 

The  natural  corrective  for  all  this  is  to  make  school  more 
attractive  than  the  street,  and  to  build  up  such  a  taste  for 
better  things  as  will  overcome  the  corruption  of  bad  examples. 
One  very  effective  method  of  procedure  is  to  read  and  tell 
many  attractive  stories  to  the  children.  Select  stories  that 
are  full  of  dramatic  power  and  of  a  character  to  awaken  all 
desirable  emotions,  and  see  that  your  narrative  is  couched 
in  clear,  refined  English,  but  direct  and  forcible  enough  to 
remain  as  a  model. 

8.  Oral  Reproduction.  It  is  not  enough  to  read  or  tell 
such  stories  to  children.  They  should  be  early  trained  to 
give  them  back  in  the  best  language  they  can  command. 

For  the  pupil's  first  attempt,  a  short,  but  decidedly 
interesting  story  should  be  selected,  told  in  an  attractive 
manner  by  the  teacher,  and  orally  reproduced  by  a  child 
or  by  several  children.  When  the  pupil  hesitates,  the  par- 
ticular thought  or  expression  should  be  suggested  by  the 
teacher.     The  fables  furnish  excellent  material  at  this  point, 


130  Public  School  Methods 

because  of  their  brevity  and  forcefulness.  Short  repetition 
stories  come  next  in  importance,  stories  like  Little  Red  Hen 
and  The  Grains  of  Wheat. 

If  the  pupils  have  a  real  audience — as  a  pupil  who  was 
absent  when  the  teacher  told  the  tale,  or  another  grade  of 
children  who  themselves  are  preparing  a  story  to  tell  in 
return — a  true  social  atmosphere  is  created,  and  the  teacher 
can  train  in  oral  English  with  much  better  result.  She 
asks,  "Will  that  be  clear  to  children  who  have  never  heard 
the  story?"  Drill  on  the  common  mistakes  in  speech,  as, 
"Who  did  it?"  "She  sat  down,"  etc.  This  is  infinitely 
more  effective  when  there  is  a  social  motive  for  correctness 
back  of  it.  To  help  in  writing  a  "room  story  book,"  for 
which  the  best  parts  of  children's  feeble  little  attempts  are 
selected  by  the  teacher;  to  keep  a  simple  little  note-book 
record  of  how  the  plants,  animals,  and  weather  are  chang- 
ing, are  much  more  reasonable  activities  involving  writing 
as  expression  than  the  writing  of  sentences  daily,  just  for 
the  sake  of  writing. 

At  the  next  trial,  something  a  little  longer  may  be  used. 
One  child  may  be  asked  to  start  the  telling  of  a  story,  and, 
when  well  started,  another  pupil  may  take  up  the  narrative, 
then  another  and  another,  until  the  story  is  complete.  This 
method  holds  the  interest  of  the  class,  calls  more  pupils  into 
the  exercise,  and,  when  questions  are  well  and  rapidly  dis- 
tributed, keeps  all  the  members  of  the  class  alert  and 
expectant. 

When  pupils  adhere  rigidly  to  the  exact  words  of  the 
book,  which  is  not  at  all  likely,  try  to  secure  more  freedom. 
On  the  contrary,  when  pupils  are  inclined  to  use  too  much 
freedom,  introducing  slang  or  any  less  desirable  forms  than 
those  in  the  original,  encourage  a  closer  adherence  to  the 
choicer  words  and  phrases  of  the  book. 

9.  Similes  and  Metaphors.  To  familiarize  children  of  the 
primary  grades  with  the  use  of  picturesque  terms,  it  is  well 
for  the  teacher  to  make  free  use  of  easy  similes  and  meta- 
phors in  both  the  formal  and  informal  work  of  the  school, 


Language  131 

and  to  call  attention  to  the  "picture"  words  and  phrases 
which  occur  in  the  reading  lessons.  This  kind  of  language 
training  should  be  commenced  early  in  the  first  year  and 
carried  through  all  the  grades,  expanding  the  work  and 
increasing  the  difficulties  according  to  the  advancement 
of  the  pupils. 

It  is  far  better  to  weave  desirable  figures  of  speech  into 
the  early  blackboard  reading  lessons  than  to  starve  the 
child's  imagination  by  forcing  him  to  read  endless  bald, 
unadorned  statements  like  "I  see  a  cat,"  "I  see  a  dog," 
"I  see  a  hen."  Suppose  we  try,  instead,  "See  my  white 
cat,  Snowball.  Snowball  has  a  white  fur  coat.  Has  your 
cat  a  white  fur  coat?  My  Snowball  has  golden  eyes.  Has 
your  cat  golden  eyes?  Snowball  likes  me  and  I  like  Snow- 
ball." In  either  case,  to  adults  the  repetition  is  tiresome 
beyond  expression,  but  children  do  not  feel  it  in  the  second 
series  of  sentences  because  the  language  used  is  such  as 
appeals  to  their  imagination  and  fills  their  minds  with 
pleasant  images. 

10.  Methods  Illustrated.  Assuming  that  many  of  the 
primary  reading  lessons  prepared  by  the  teacher  will  be 
based  upon  various  phases  of  nature  study  and  familiar 
experiences  of  the  child's  life,  a  series  of  figurative  sentences 
appropriate  to  such  lessons  during  the  first  three  years  is 
here  given.  Interweave  these  and  others  of  like  character 
freely  among  the  plainer  sentences  and  see  how  much  more 
rapidly  the  children  will  learn  to  express  themselves  in  good 
English. 

When  these  or  similar  sentences  are  introduced  or  found 
in  reading  lessons,  let  the  pupils  tell  what  they  think  is 
meant.  Often  ask,  "What  picture  does  that  make  you 
see?"  "Read  the  sentence  again.  Now  shut  your  eyes 
and  tell  me  what  picture  comes."  The  novelty  of  the 
exercise  lends  additional  interest  and  impressiveness  to  the 
lesson. 

11.  Suggestive  Exercises.  The  following  series  of  sen- 
tences may  be  appropriate  for  use: 


132  Public  School  Metlwds 

This  is  our  baby. 

Baby  has  laughing  eyes. 

Her  cheeks  are  like  roses. 

Her  hair  is  like  sunshine. 

What  is  her  mouth  like? 

Her  mouth  is  like  a  sweet  little  pink  rosebud. 

Little  violet  has  come. 

She  has  on  a  purple  hood. 

Sunshine  kisses  her  modest  little  face. 

Hear  the  little  brook  laugh  and  sing. 
See  how  it  dances  over  the  pebbles. 

Milkweed  seeds  travel  far  from  home. 

Sometimes  they  go  by  bird  express. 

Sometimes  they  ride  on  a  friendly  breeze. 

Dandelion  seeds  and  thistle  seeds  travel  the  same  way. 

The  day  is  dying  now. 

Look  at  the  sunset  sky. 

See  the  banners  of  red  and  gold. 

Soon  it  will  be  night. 

Then  the  stars  will  blossom  in  the  sky. 

The  long  arms  of  the  great  elms  reach  across  the  roads  in  the 
park.     Do  you  think  the  trees  shake  hands? 

See  how  the  people  gather  under  the  elms.  The  kindly  trees 
shelter  them  from  the  sun.     The  gentle  winds  fan  their  hot  faces. 

MOTHER    NATURE'S    CARPET 

It  is  the  spring-time.  Mother  Nature's  white  fur  rugs  are  worn 
out.  Her  floor  is  as  bare  as  bare  can  be.  Where  will  she  get  a  new 
carpet  ? 

"Let. me  sweep  the  floor,"  said  March.  "I  will  use  my  strong 
wind-broom." 

April  said:  "Twill  make  a  carpet  for  the  floor.  It  shall  be  of 
soft,  green  grass." 

Then  May  said:  "I  will  scatter  dandelions  over  the  green  carpet. 
They  are  as  yellow  as  gold.     I  will  scatter  blue  violets  over  it,  too." 

What  did  June,  sweet  June,  say? 

"I  will  bring  clovers  and  buttercups  for  Mother  Nature's  carpet. 
I  will  bring  sweet  perfume,  too.  The  breath  of  my  roses  is  the  per- 
fume.    Who  does  not  love  the  breath  of  June  roses?" 

And  so  Mother  Nature  got  her  new  carpet,  and  June  gave  her 
rose  perfume,  too. 


Language  133 

Before  the  third  year  has  passed,  the  children  will  not 
find  it  difficult  to  understand  and  explain  such  expressions 
as  "  All  winter  long  the  winds  rock  the  leaf  cradles,  "  "  Beyond 
the  purpling  hill-tops  I  see  a  star,"  "Hummingbirds  are 
jewels  with  flashing  wings,"  "  October  is  the  month  of  painted 
leaves,"  and  "March  is  spring's  own  trumpeter." 

12.  Rhythm  and  Rhyme.  Children  love  both  rhythm 
and  rhyme,  and  imitate  them  from  Mother  Goose  and  other 
jingles.  This  tendency  should  be  encouraged.  The  work 
in  phonics  aids  here;  reading  aloud  to  the  children  poetry 
with  marked  rhythm  and  simple  rhyme  is  another  help. 
Let  the  children  clap  or  mark  the  strong  accents  as  they 
do  in  the  music  or  in  the  gymnastic  games.  Let  them  give 
words  that  rhyme.  Such  work  marks  the  beginning  of  appre- 
ciation and  understanding  of  poetic  forms.  A  first  grade 
class  composed  the  following  poem  with  great  delight,  and 
used  it  in  games: 

THE    FAIRIES 

Fairies  go, 

Skipping  so. 

They  sleep  in  the  day; 

At  night  they  play. 

13.  Other  Phases  of  Oral  Reproduction.  After  the  class 
has  become  used  to  short  reproductions,  it  will  be  well  to 
select  longer  stories  and  to  call  upon  different  children  to 
reproduce  the  various  parts  or  sections  of  the  stoiy.  For 
instance,  in  the  story  of  The  Three  Bears,  which  is  a  prime 
favorite,  call  upon  one  child  to  tell  how  the  bears  chanced 
to  go  for  a  walk;  another,  of  the  coming  of  Golden  Hair  and 
her  experience  with  the  porridge;  another,  of  her  experience 
with  the  chairs;  another,  of  the  bedroom  episode,  and  three 
others  of  the  episodes  after  the  bears  return.  This  may  be 
preceded  or  followed  by  an  impromptu  dramatization  in 
which  action  takes  the  place  of  explanation,  and  the  con- 
versation is  more  or  less  original.  The  dramatic  effort  is 
a  great  stimulus  to  constructive  imagination  and  to  language 


134  Public  School  Methods 

effort.  Good  pictures  supply  suggestive  situations,  and  the 
primary  teacher  can  do  no  better  than  to  collect  series  of 
pictures  illustrating  favorite  stock  stories. 

The  next  step  would  be  to  take  some  of  the  familiar 
Mother  Goose  rhymes  for  the  reading  lessons  and  then  let 
each  one  be  told  in  prose  language  by  the  pupils,  fol- 
lowing the  plans  previously  stated.  Some  of  the  best  for 
first  use  are  Lady  Bug;  Daffydowndilly;  Jack  and  Jill; 
Mary,  Mary,  Quite  Contrary;  Little  Bo-Peep,  and  Little  Boy 
Blue. 

Before  the  end  of  the  second  year,  children  will  easily 
reproduce  such  stories  as  The  Little  Red  Hen,  Little  Red  Rid- 
ing Hood,  Chicken  Little,  Cinderella,  The  Three  Bears  and 
Puss  in  Boots. 

The  Three  Bears,  Chicken  Little,  The  Old  Woman  and  Her 
Pig  and  some  others  will  be  told  easily  in  the  last  term  of 
the  first  year,  if  the  children  are  from  American  homes,  where 
they  hear  and  speak  the  English  language  only.  The  amount 
of  repetition  in  these  makes  them  easy  to  memorize,  and 
when  children  deviate  from  the  exact  language  it  often  adds 
a  piquant  flavor  to  the  original  tale. 

On  the  contrary,  Celia  Thaxter's  Spring,  Tennyson's 
Cradle  Song,  Helen  Hunt  Jackson's  September  or  October's 
Bright  Blue  Weather  and  the  like  are  as  beautiful  as  they 
are  simple,  and  should  never  be  subjected  to  the  distortions 
that  result  when  children  are  asked  to  give  them  in  their 
own  language.  Real  poems  are  too  fine  to  be  twisted  out 
of  shape  by  the  garbled  versions  due  to  turning  good  poetry 
into  bad  prose.  Memorized,  they  add  materially  to  the 
child's  mental  pictures  and  to  his  stock  of  effective  and 
beautiful  language. 

Such  fables  as  The  Fox  and  the  Grapes,  The  Lion  and  the 
Mouse,  The  Wind  and  the  Sun,  The  Crow  and  the  Pitcher, 
and  such  stories  as  How  Patty  Gave  Thanks,  The  Morning- 
Glory  Seed,  The  Little  Fir  Tree,  The  Five  Peas  in  One  Pod, 
Legend  of  the  Cowslip  and  The  Three  Axes,  and,  in  the  third 
and   fourth   year,    such   myths   and   legends   as   Clytie,    The 


Language  135 

Blue-Eyed  Grass,  Narcissus,  Pandora's  Box,  Rhoecus,  Janus 
are  easy  for  primary  children  to  reproduce  orally. 

The  above  are  but  suggestive  types  of  the  work  to  be 
done.  The  amount  must  depend  upon  the  time  allowed 
for  specific  language  work,  the  natural  ability  of  the  chil- 
dren and  the  kind  of  training  they  receive  outside  of  school. 

The  object  of  such  exercises  is  (i)  to  secure  fluency  in 
the  use  of  familiar  language,  (2)  to  teach  new  words  and 
phrases,  (3)  to  create  a  taste  for  purer  English  than  that 
heard  on  the  street  and  in  the  majority  of  homes,  and  (4) 
to  teach  pupils  to  think  clearly  when  standing  and  to  speak 
easily  and  without  embarrassment. 

The  value  of  this  kind  of  work  is  so  great  that  it  should 
be  freely  given  in  the  first  grade  and  continued  through  all 
the  grades. 

Cautions.  (1)  When  the  children  have  a  real  poem  to 
read,  no  matter  how  simple,  then  have  no  original  repro- 
ductions. A  genuine  poem  is  such  because  it  contains  a 
beautiful  thought  beautifully  expressed,  and  the  sentiment 
will  be  far  better  remembered  if  not  separated  from  the 
language  in  which  the  author  has  clothed  it.  In  such  cases 
always  have  some  portion — or  the  whole — recited  verbatim, 
and,  in  the  third  year  and  onward,  copied  with  absolute 
fidelity  upon  blackboard  or  paper. 

(2)  Teachers  are  not  to  conclude  that  all  of  one  form  of 
oral  reproduction  is  to  be  given  before  another  is  introduced. 
Make  one  form  familiar,  then  give  another  for  the  sake  of 
variety,  changing  often  from  one  to  another. 

14.  Technical  Forms.  So  far,  the  work  has  been  based 
upon  the  assumption  that  language  is  the  result  of  a  need 
to  express  thoughts  and  emotions.  The  technical  forms 
have  not  been  discussed — and  should  not  be,  with  primary 
children — but  they  must  be  attended  to,  nevertheless,  and 
kept  constantly  in  the  teacher's  mind  until  the  pupils  learn 
from  long  practice  to  use  them  correctly  without  being 
obliged  to  give  thought  to  the  matter.  It  is  the  teacher's 
business  to  eliminate  from  the  language  of  the  school  all 


136  Public  School  Methods 

slang  and  all  ungrammatical  expressions,  of  which  /  seen,  1 
done,  'aint,  'taint,  haint,  he  has  went,  he  don't,  them  things, 
those  sort  of  things,  I  be  and  many  others  are  familiar,  every- 
day types. 

To  weed  out  the  objectionable  language  which  is  found 
in  nearly  every  school  requires  unlimited  patience,  unceasing 
vigilance,  a  perfect  example  and  much  tact  on  the  part  of 
the  teacher.  It  is,  literally,  "  line  upon  line  and  precept 
upon  precept,  here  a  little  and  there  a  little,"  and  this,  too, 
all  day  and  every  day.  Harsh  criticisms  or  ridicule  in  any 
form  should  never  be  employed. 

Usually  the  child  does  the  best  he  can,  and  falls  into  errors 
of  speech  because  knowledge  of  correct  forms  has  not  yet 
functioned  into  habit.  When  a  slip  of  the  tongue  occurs 
and  the  child  says,  "I  seen  Frank,"  it  is  wiser,  quietly  to 
repeat,  "I  saw  Frank,"  or  let  the  account  be  finished  and 
then  say,  "Charles,  say,  'I  saw  Frank.  He  did  it'",  and 
in  this  way  have  all  errors  corrected.  It  is  a  long,  hard 
task,  but  a  kindly  persistence  will  finally  have  its  effect. 

The  various  forms  of  the  verbs  be,  go,  do,  see,  has  and 
other  common,  irregular  verbs  will  cause  much  trouble,  as 
will  the  various  forms  of  pronouns.  These  must  be  learned 
from  being  called  constantly  into  use,  no  technical  explana- 
tions being  possible  at  this  time.  The  teacher  will  need  to 
plan  exercises  in  which  troublesome  forms  may  be  freely 
used  without  having  the  appearance  of  being  purposely 
introduced  (see  Section  16). 

Cautions.  (1)  So  far  as  possible,  never  let  a  child  of  the 
primary  grades  hear  or  see  an  incorrect  form  of  language. 

Through  the  law  of  primacy  in  experience,  the  first  form 
tends  to  make  such  an  impression  upon  the  mind  that  the 
child  is  possessed  of  a  strong  tendency  to  follow  the  example 
given ;  and  it  is  also  true  that  in  presenting  an  incorrect  form 
the  teacher  intensifies  a  tendency  already  established.  "  False 
syntax"  is  already  familiar  and  undesirable.  It  is  the  correct 
form  that  needs  to  be  impressed;  hence,  the  so-called  "false 
syntax "    should   never  be   used   before   the   pupils   are   old 


Language  137 

enough  to  study  grammar  as  a  technical  subject — and  even 
then  its  use  is  of  doubtful  propriety. 

(2)  Be  sure  that  all  words  used  are  understood  by  the 
pupil.  Many  teachers,  in  connection  with  the  reading  and 
spelling  lessons,  require  in  the  primary — and  the  higher 
grades  as  well — that  all  new  words  be  used  in  sentences  of 
the  child's  own  making.  Such  an  exercise  frequently  leads  to 
absurd  mistakes  and  should  not  be  used  in  the  primary  grades. 

(3)  As  a  rule,  teachers  are  not  sufficiently  careful  when 
teaching  the  words  of  literary  selections,  songs  and  poems. 
One  child  referred  to  memory  gems  as  "memory  jams." 
Another  child  sang,  "Four  hundred  pussies  waiting  near," 
for  "For  hungry  puss  is  waiting  near,"  and  when  corrected 
by  his  mother  refused  to  change,  insisting  that  his  teacher 
taught  the  song  as  he  sang  it.  A  boy  changed  the  familiar 
proverb,  "Wine  is  a  mocker  and  strong  drink  is  raging," 
into  "God  is  a  mocker  and  strong  drink  is  ragtime,"  and 
declared  that  was  what  he  had  been  taught.  These  are  but 
a  few  of  many  illustrations  that  show  the  importance  of 
securing  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  a  clear  understanding  of 
both  the  words  and  the  meaning  of  whatever  they  are  required 
to  memorize. 

15.  Historical  Stories,  Biographies  and  Journeys.  For 
pupils  of  the  third  grade  a  very  interesting  and  valuable 
line  of  oral  language  teaching  may  be  based  upon  inter- 
esting stories  from  history,  especially  stories  of  colonial 
children,  children  of  Japan,  of  China,  and  Indian  children. 
Stories  of  the  childhood  of  famous  men  (Lincoln,  for  example) 
may  be  used  in  the  same  way.  Journeys  may  be  taken  to 
see  places  and  products  in  which  children  take  interest.  In 
all  such  exercises  adhere  to  facts. 

Children  should  also  be  taught  to  talk  to  outlines,  follow- 
ing a  consecutive  order.  These  outlines  may  first  be  furnished 
by  the  teacher,  with  more  or  less  help  from  the  pupils,  accord- 
ing to  their  ability.  Later  they  should  make  and  follow 
outlines  in  both  oral  and  written  exercises.  Than  this  there 
is  no  more  effective  aid  to  consecutive  thinking  and  expression. 


138  Public  School  Methods 

16.  Language  Games.  Personations  of  birds,  insects, 
rodents  and  other  animals;  personations  of  flowers,  cele- 
brated trees,  personations  of  natural  or  manufactured  prod- 
ucts; celebrated  characters  of  history  (generals,  inventors, 
philanthropists,  etc.);  also,  celebrated  events  in  history  can 
be  used  to  good  advantage.    In  all  of  these  the  usual  formula 

is  "I  am ,"  giving  the  distinguishing  characteristics,  and 

closing  with  "What  is  my  name?" 

These  make  good  oral  reviews  in  the  various  subjects 
and  are  fine  exercises  in  oral  language. 

There  is  a  game  commonly  called  Twenty  Questions,  which 
is  excellent  for  language  drill  in  the  third  grade  and  above. 
Each  of  these  questions  must  be  such  as  can  be  answered 
by  yes  or  no.  The  leader  fixes  his  mind  upon  some  one  person, 
object  or  event.  The  first  questions  are,  "  Does  it  belong  to 
the  animal  kingdom?"  "Vegetable?"  "Mineral?"  This 
being  settled,  other  questions  are  asked  until  the  leader's 
thought  is  reached. 

For  the  primary  children,  simple  personations  of  familiar 
birds,  flowers  and  animals  are  better.  The  rhyming  word 
can  also  be  used.  The  leader  has  some  word  in  mind  that 
is  to  be  found  out  by  the  other  pupils,  for  instance,  a  word 
that  rhymes  with  my.  The  questions  asked  may  be  "  Is  it 
good  to  eat?"  The  leader  replies,  "No,  it  is  not  pie."  "Is 
it  what  I  see  with?"  "  It  is  not  eye."  And  so  on,  until  some 
one  asks,  "Does  it  mean  to  weep?"     "Yes,  it  is  cry" 

The  following  game,  varied  to  suit  the  needs  of  the  par- 
ticular class,  has  been  found  to  be  very  helpful.  The  ques- 
tions, answers  and  action  should  be  rapid  and  varied.  Five 
minutes  given  occasionally  to  the  game  with  the  entire 
school  gives  practical  help  on  the  difficult  verb  forms,  the 
expression  and  the  action  coming  together,  causing  the 
right  form  to  become  automatic. 

Teacher:  Charles,  you  may  sit  in  my  large  chair  and 
see  how  straight  the  children  sit.  (Charles  does  so.)  What 
is  Charles  doing,  Emma? 

Emma:     He  is  sitting  in  your  chair,  Miss  Blank. 


Language  139 

Teacher:    How  do  the  children  sit,  Charles? 

Charles:    They  sit  straight,  Miss  Blank. 

Teacher:  You  may  take  your  seat,  now.  What  did 
Charles  do,  Anna? 

Anna:    He  sat  in  your  chair,  Miss  Blank. 

Teacher:  Right.  You  may  go  to  the  door,  Frank  may 
go  to  the  window  (etc.).     Tell  what  each  one  did. 

William:  Anna  went  to  the  door,  Frank  went  to  the 
window,  etc. 

17.  Oral  Composition  of  Plays.  The  youngest  children 
in  school  should  be  given  opportunities  for  oral  dramatic 
composition.  The  interest  in  playing  the  thing  is  so  great 
that  the  teacher  may  turn  it  to  account  in  causing  the  chil- 
dren to  compose  in  oral  English  the  little  drama  to  be  played. 
For  instance,  after  the  teacher  has  told  the  story  of  The 
Little  Red  Hen,  the  children,  in  planning  the  play,  should 
tell  what  each  of  the  animals  should  say  (the  repetition  in 
the  tale  makes  this  easy),  who  speaks  first,  and  the  like. 
The  utmost  simplicity  should  be  adhered  to,  but,  never- 
theless, the  words  of  the  little  drama  should  be  contributed 
by  the  players  themselves.  Imitation  of  the  teacher's  words 
at  this  stage  is  to  be  expected,  and  is,  for  purposes  of  train- 
ing, desirable. 

18.  Language  and  Drawing.  Drawing  should  often  be 
combined  with  words  in  a  lesson  to  make  the  ideas  more 
vivid  to  the  child;  also,  to  assist  his  memory  when  first  he 
is  attempting  either  oral  or  written  reproductions.  For 
example,  the  youngest  children  of  the  first  grade  may  find 
it  difficult  to  tell  even  so  simple  a  thing  as  The  Old  Woman 
Who  Lived  in  a  Shoe.  In  such  cases,  a  few  outline  drawings 
suggesting  the  chief  objects  or  actors  would  make  the  repro- 
duction an  easy  matter. 

19.  Written  Language.  The  earliest  lessons  in  written 
language  are  the  recognition  of  the  written  or  printed  forms 
of  familiar  words,  building  these  words  with  splints,  lentils 
or  alphabets,  and  copying  the  same  words  first  on  black- 
boards, and,  later,  on  paper  or  slates.     Paper  without  lines 


140  Public  School  Methods 

is  better  for  the  beginner.  (See  Penmanship,  page  156.)  See 
the  lessons  on  reading  for  details  as  to  this  work,  the  teach- 
ing of  capital  letters  and  punctuation,  the  writing  of  the 
child's  name,  home  address,  father's  name,  names  of  the 
days  of  the  week  and  month,  name  of  the  school,  etc. 

The  secret  of  success  in  teaching  the  correct  use  of  capi- 
tals, punctuation,  paragraphing,  all  that  pertains  to  the 
forms  of  written  language,  may  be  found  in  the  following 
rules : 

(1)  No  Incorrect  form  should  appear  in  the  teacher's  own  work 
or  in  what  she  puts  before  the  pupil. 

(2)  No  incorrect  form  in  copied  or  original  work  by  the  pupil 
should  be  allowed  to  pass  unnoticed  cr  uncorrected. 

(3)  As  before  stated,  criticisms  should  be  made  gently  and  imper- 
sonally. No  child  should  ever  be  permitted  to  feel  that  it  is  himself 
rather  than  his  work  that  is  criticised. 

(4)  There  should  be  endless  repetitions  of  the  correct  forms. 
Incorrect  forms  that  occui  in  the  pupil's  work  should  be  quickly 
erased  and  replaced  by  correct  ones. 

(5)  No  new  form  of  written  language  should  be  attempted  until 
the  same  thing  has  been  given  orally  and  so  used  until  it  is  familiar 
to  the  class. 

20.  Steps  in  Written  Work.  All  the  first  efforts  of  the 
child  should  be  limited  to  some  form  of  copying  from  correct 
models.  At  first,  the  exercise  should  not  require  more  than 
the  child's  own  name,  owing  to  the  difficulties  he  has  with 
penmanship.  As  these  difficulties  are  overcome  slowly,  the 
exercises  must  increase  in  length  very  gradually. 

The  second  step  may  well  be  the  written  reproduction 
of  one  or  more  facts  brought  out  in  the  nature  study  lessons. 
These  reproductions  should  be  answers  to  guiding  questions 
placed  upon  the  board.  Here,  again,  the  teacher  must  remem- 
ber not  to  increase  the  number  of  questions  beyond  what 
the  pupils  can  answer  correctly  and  neatly  in  the  time  allowed. 
It  is  necessary  to  ward  off  discouragement  and  develop  the 
child's  confidence  in  this  new  line  of  endeavor. 

The  chief  difficulty  on  the  teacher's  part  will  be  to  pre- 
pare the  questions  in  such  wise  as  to  bring  out  in  the  answers 
the  principal  points  in  the  order  of  their  occurrence,  so  that 


Language  141 

the  reproduced  story  may  have  the  same  continuity  as  the 
original  one.  From  the  beginning,  questions  and  answers 
appearing  upon  the  blackboard  should  be  written  in  para- 
graph form.  The  results  in  consciousness  and  imitation  of 
copy  will  appear  later.  This  is  of  much  importance,  as  it 
is  the  simple  beginning  upon  which  a  clear,  lucid  style  depends. 

To  illustrate  simplicity  and  grouping,  the  following  ques- 
tions are  given.  They  may  be  used  after  the  pupils  have 
been  made  entirely  familiar  with  the  facts  by  oral  lessons: 

What  is  the  color  of  your  kitty?  What  is  her  coat  made 
of?     What  is  her  name? 

What  does  your  kitty  eat?  How  often  do  you  feed  her? 
What  meat  does  she  get  for  herself?  What  food  does  she 
like  best? 

How  does  your  kitty's  tongue  feel?  When  does  she  use 
it  like  a  spoon?  When  does  she  use  it  like  a  sponge?  Why 
does  kitty  have  sharp  claws?  When  does  she  use  her 
claws  ? 

The  questions  pertain  to  three  topics,  each  group  form- 
ing a  paragraph.  The  answers  should  also  relate  to  three 
topics,  and  were  they  placed  in  written  form  they  would 
be  in  three  groups. 

The  answers,  given  in  consecutive  order,  form  the  story 
desired.  Note  that  the  questions,  at  first,  supply  most  of 
the  words  that  will  be  needed  in  the  answers,  thus  aiding 
the  spelling  as  well  as  the  construction  of  sentences.  The 
number  of  questions  and  the  degree  of  difficulty  must  be 
governed  by  the  grade  and  the  ability  of  the  class  and  the 
time  allowed  for  the  work. 

Cautions.  (i)  No  questions  should  be  asked  that  the 
pupils  cannot  answer  from  knowledge  previously  acquired 
in  oral  lessons. 

(2)  The  time  devoted  to  a  written  exercise  in  language 
should  not  exceed  twenty  minutes,  even  for  the  third  year 
pupils.  For  first  year  pupils,  from  ten  to  fifteen  minutes, 
and  for  the  second  grade,  from  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes, 
are  the  maximum  limits.     These  exercises,  at  first,  should 


142  Public  School  Methods 

be  written  under  the  Immediate,  but  not  oppressive,  super- 
vision of  the  teacher.  Later,  they  should  be  written  with- 
out help  of  any  kind. 

(3)  Teachers  must  remember  to  make  the  first  questions 
very  simple  and  limit  them  to  three  or  four,  gradually  increas- 
ing the  number  to  ten  for  the  last  part  of  the  first  year, 
fifteen  for  the  second  and  twenty  for  the  third  year. 

(4)  When  the  answers  require  any  difficult  thinking,  the 
questions  must  be  reduced  in  number.  If  the  questions 
require  too  much  work  for  the  time  allowed,  the  pupils  become 
discouraged  and  cease  to  try. 

(5)  Correlate  the  work  carefully  with  spelling  and  pen- 
manship, commending,  according  to  the  effort  made,  correct- 
ness of  statements  and  neatness  of  work. 

(6)  Save  the  papers  and  use  the  stories  in  a  subsequent 
reading  lesson. 

(7)  Correct  errors  in  spelling,  capitalization,  syllabication 
and  punctuation  in  the  next  spelling  period  or  in  the  next 
language  period. 

(8)  Mark  the  errors,  but  do  not  tell  the  class  who  made 
the  errors.  Say,  "I  found  so  and  so  on  this  paper."  Then 
read  the  sentence  and  call  for  corrections  of  (a)  facts,  (b) 
form.  Often  the  one  who  made  the  error  will  be  the  first 
to  correct  it,  the  ear  helping  to  detect  what  the  eye  had 
overlooked  because  of  the  struggle  with  the  difficult  written 
forms. 

(9)  Assign  enough  work  to  keep  the  quickest  ones  busy 
the  full  time,  but  do  not  require  the  weaker  ones  to  do  all 
of  it.  Better  say,  "  I  wish  all  the  class  to  answer  the  first 
five  (more  or  less)  questions,  and  all  who  can  may  answer 
every  one  of  them." 

(10)  Avoid  stilted  phraseology  in  the  questions.  Always 
use  good  English  and  keep  to  simple  forms. 

(11)  The  danger  always  is  that  the  teacher  will  expect 
too  much  and  give  so  much  written  work  that  the  result 
is  poor  spelling,  poor  penmanship,  errors  of  all  kinds  and 
general  discouragement. 


Language  143 

21.  Picture  Lessons.  Pictures  may,  if  desired,  form  the 
basis  of  many  interesting  and  profitable  lessons  in  oral 
language  during  the  first  year.  In  their  study,  the  teacher's 
questions  should  be  carefully  framed  so  as  to  direct  the  order 
of  the  child's  observation  as  well  as  expression,  until  a  logical 
habit  in  each  has  been  thoroughly  established. 

During  the  first  months  of  school,  the  little  people  are 
prone  to  make  use  of  fragments  rather  than  of  whole  sen- 
tences. As  diffidence  wears  off  and  their  vocabulary  increases, 
they  gradually  acquire  considerable  fluency  in  the  use  of 
oral  language.  The  element  of  continuity  is  still  very  weak 
and  not  to  be  trusted;  hence,  for  all  forms  of  written  work, 
outline  questions,  as  previously  suggested,  should  be  pre- 
pared according  to  the  foregoing  instructions,  to  serve  as 
a  guide  for  the  work  required. 

When  pictures  are  used  for  language  lessons,  always 
present  those  that  are  correct,  interesting,  suited  to  age  of 
pupils,  and  not  so  crowded  with  details  as  to  obscure  the 
story  the  picture  should  tell.  Practice  in  naming  trains 
pupils  to  see  the  central  thought  or  purpose  of  a  picture, 
and  will  assist  them  later  to  describe  effectively.  Children, 
if  left  to  themselves,  are  likely,  for  instance,  to  say,  "  I  see 
some  chickens,  and  a  hen,  and  a  pan,  and  a  woman,"  whereas 
they  must  be  helped  to  see  and  say,  "  I  see  a  woman  feeding 
the  chickens.  The  food  is  in  a  pan,  and  she  holds  the  pan 
in  her  hand."  This  latter  power  arises  from  seeing  the 
central  thought,  and  naming  the  picture  Feeding  the  Chickens. 

The  full-page  illustrations  used  in  this  volume  are  types 
of  pictures  suited  to  primary  grades.  They  can  be  used  for 
both  language  and  reading  lessons. 

As  before  stated,  oral  lessons  should  precede  the  written 
ones  all  through  the  first  three  years,  because  of  the  mechan- 
ical difficulties  attendant  upon  written  language. 

22.  Outline  for  Last  Month  of  First  Year.  Take  Millais's 
Lilacs,  for  example.  The  following  questions  may  be  used 
first  in  a  conversational  lesson,  the  answers  given  orally 
by  the  class,  written  upon  the  board  as  obtained,  then  used 


144  Public  School  Methods 

later  for  a  reading  lesson.  The  answers  may  then  be  erased, 
leaving  before  the  class  as  the  basis  of  the  written  work 
the  questions  only.1 

(a)  The  Questions,     (i)  Name  the  picture. 

(2)  Give  the  little  girl  a  name.  What  has  she  in  her 
lap?  What  color  are  the  lilacs?  What  shape?  Where  do 
they  grow?    Where  do  you  think  she  got  them? 

(3)  Why  is  she  looking  upward?  What  kind  of  weather 
is  it?    Why  do  you  think  so? 

(4)  Where  have  you  seen  lilacs? 

(b)  The  Story  (Approximate),  (i)  This  little  girl  is 
Dorothy.  Dorothy  has  some  lilacs  in  her  lap.  Lilac  blossoms 
are  plume-shaped.  Some  lilac  plumes  are  white.  Some  are 
purple.  Lilacs  grow  on  tall  bushes.  I  think  Dorothy's 
father  gave  her  the  lilacs. 

(2)  She  is  looking  up  to  see.  her  father  pick  them.  I 
think  it  is  warm  weather.  Dorothy  has  on  a  thin  dress  and 
is  bareheaded. 

(3)  I  have  seen  lilacs  in  the  park. 

Cautions.  (1)  Do  not  try  to  get  the  same  name  nor  exactly 
the  same  conclusion  from  the  various  members  of  the  class. 
The  form  is  to  serve  as  a  guide,  but  not  to  restrict  originality, 
save  when  the  child's  imagination  is  liable  to  run  away 
with  the  facts. 

(2)  Notice  that  the  questions  are  to  be  so  framed  as  to 
include  (a)  the  introduction,  (b)  the  development,  (c)  the 
conclusion — the  three  necessary  elements  to  every  story. 

(3)  The  last  answer  might  be,  "I  have  seen  lilacs  in  the 
yard  at  home — out  in  the  country — at  my  grandmother's,"  etc. 

(4)  In  case  a  child  voluntarily  adds  one  or  two  sentences 
beyond  what  is  required,  do  not  discourage  the  effort,  so 
long  as  what  is  added  is  consistent  .and  properly  related. 
Such  additions  seldom  occur  in  the  written  work,   prior  to 

1  These  questions  may  be  used  for  oral  lessons  earlier,  but  spelling  and  penman- 
ship make  so  much  trouble  that  this  kind  of  written  work,  and  that  based  upon 
literature,  should  be  saved  for  the  last  of  the  year.  Even  then,  the  picture  should 
be  newly  presented,  the  questions  asked  orally  and  the  various  points  to  observe 
carefully  indicated  before  the  pupils  begin  to  write  the  answers. 


LILACS 


Language  145 

the  last  part  of  the  third  year,  but  occur  earlier  and  more 
frequently  in  the  oral  work  of  all  the  primary  grades. 

23.  Lesson  for  Latter  Part  of  the  Second  Year,  (a) 
Blackboard  Outline.  Use  the  same  picture.  Study  the 
picture  carefully;  see  all  you  can.  Play  you  are  the  little 
girl.     Talk  for  her  and  tell  what  your  name  is. 

Tell  what  you  have  in  your  lap.  Tell  where  you  got  them. 
Tell  where  they  grew.  Tell  how  they  came  in  your  lap.  Tell 
the  color  of  your  flowers.    Tell  what  shape  these  blossoms  are. 

Tell  why  you  are  looking  upward. 

Tell  why  you  are  bareheaded  and  have  on  a  thin  dress. 
Tell  what  time  of  year  it  is. 

Tell  what  you  will  do  with  these  lilacs.  Tell  why  you 
will  do  this. 

Tell  where  else  you  have  seen  lilacs  growing. 

(b)  The  Story  (Approximate).  My  name  is  Dorothy 
Quincy.  I  have  some  lilacs  in  my  lap.  My  lilacs  are  purple. 
My  father  gave  them  to  me.  They  grew  on  a  tall  bush  on 
our  lawn.  Father  dropped  them  into  my  lap.  They  look 
like  purple  plumes. 

I  am  looking  up  to  see  him  pick  some  more. 

I  am  bareheaded  and  have  on  my  white  dress,  because 
it  is  a  warm  day.    It  is  the  last  part  of  May. 

I  shall  give  my  lilacs  to  my  grandmother.  She  loves  them 
very  much. 

I  used  to  see  lilacs  in  grandmother's  dooryard. 

Caution.  If  the  boys  dislike  to  write  this  story,  use  for 
them  another  picture  in  which  a  boy,  as  the  Roman  Flower 
Boy,  is  the  chief  element.  It  is  often  well  to  use  two 
pictures  in  this  and  higher  grades,  since  more  variety  is  thus 
secured  and  the  corrections  are  less  monotonous. 

24.  Rhythm  and  Rhyme.  Train  pupils  in  marking 
rhythm  in  the  selections  from  their  reading,  as  in  Hiawatha, 
Little  White  Lily,  etc.  Let  them,  for  instance,  mark  the 
strong  and  the  weak  pulses  as  they  hear  them,  by  clapping; 
others  by  chalk  marks  on  the  board;  others  by  tapping  with 
finger-tips  on  the  desk,  or  by  swaying  of  the  body.    All  efforts 


146  Public  School  Methods 

should  be  directed  to  make  the  children  feel  the  rhythm 
and  to  express  it.  Little  effort  should  be  made  to  teach 
rhyme  to  young  children.  Accept  it  when  offered,  but  do 
not  strain  for  it.  A  class  of  children  made  up  the  following 
May  Day  Verse,  one  suggesting  the  rhythm,  another  a  line, 
and  so  on. 

MAY    DAY    VERSE 

A-Maying  we  go  I 
A-Maying  we  go! 
We'll  pick  the  sweet  flowers 
In  the  early  spring  hours. 

Another  second  grade  class  made  up  tree  riddles  in  verse 
for  Arbor  Day.     One  was  as  follows: 

"I  am  a  tree  so  very  tall 
That  I  am  called  the  king  of  all. 
My  leaves  turn  scarlet  in  the  fall."      (Oak.) 

25.  For  the  Third  Grade,  (a)  General  Instructions. 
Use  the  same  picture  as  before.  This  time  let  the  children 
personate  the  lilacs  and  tell  their  story.  Each  teacher  will 
necessarily  vary  the  outline  to  draw  out  the  facts  that  her 
own  class  has  previously  learned  from  a  study  of  lilacs. 

(b)  The  Story  (Approximate).  I  am  a  lilac  blossom. 
I  grew  on  a  tall,  strong  bush  on  the  lawn.  Do  you  see  where 
I  am?  I  am  lying  in  little  Dorothy's  lap.  Some  of  my  sister 
blossoms  are  with  me. 

Little  Dorothy  loves  us  very  much.  Her  father  dropped 
us  into  her  lap.  Do  you  see  her  looking  up  for  more?  I 
think  she  wants  her  lap  full  of  lilacs!  The  bush  has  more 
than  enough  to  fill  it. 

Do  you  know  lilac  blossoms?  We  look  like  lovely  plumes. 
The  lilacs  Dorothy  has  are  purple.  We  have  some  cousins 
that  are  white. 

You  can  smell  our  sweet  breath  a  long  way  off.  Dorothy's 
grandmother  says  she  feels  sure  that  spring  has  really  come 
when  she  sees  the  lilacs. 


Language  147 

Our  mother  bush  is  strong  and  hardy.  She  lives  year 
after  year  out  on  the  lawn.  Her  strong,  tough  roots  hold 
her  firmly  in  the  ground.  Her  stems  are  strong  and  woody 
and  are  covered  with  a  smooth,  brown  bark.  In  the  month 
of  April,  her  leaf  buds  swell  and  her  green  leaves  come  out. 
The  blossoms  do  not  come  until  May. 

Dorothy  will  give  most  of  her  flowers  to  her  grandmother. 
But  I  think  some  of  the  purple  plumes  will  be  turned  into 
purple  chains.  Dorothy  likes  to  make  lilac  chains.  Do 
you? 

Cautions,  (i)  Do  not  expect  connected  written  stories 
until  there  has  been  a  great  deal  of  practice  in  telling  stories 
orally.  Fluency  of  speech  comes  only  by  long  practice, 
and  fluency  with  the  pen  is  vastly  more  difficult;  hence, 
teachers  need  to  be  patient  with  slow  results. 

(2)  Very  great  care  must  be  taken  with  the  outlines,  or 
the  stories  will  never  acquire  the  desired  continuity  and 
logical  development  according  to  the  facts. 

(3)  Logical  sequence  cf  ideas,  choice  of  words,  correct 
spelling,  capitalization,  punctuation  and  syllabication  will 
furnish  more  than  enough  difficulties  for  the  primary  grades. 
Even  these,  unless  constantly  worked  with,  will  not  be  con- 
quered for  several  years  to  come. 

(4)  When  copying  is  required,  it  should  always  be  in 
paragraphs,  if  the  original  is  so  arranged.  From  much  copy- 
ing, the  form  of  the  paragraph  and  its  underlying  ideas 
gradually  become  impressed,  if  the  teacher  wisely  draws 
frequent  attention  to  the  groups  of  sentences,  speaks  of 
paragraphs  by  name,  and  shows  why  the  groups  are  formed. 

(5)  Keep  constantly  in  mind  that  all  forms  of  construc- 
tive language  should  become  familiar  to  the  children  first 
by  means  of  oral  language.  The  mind  may  then  concentrate 
upon  the  form  of  construction  without  the  attention  being 
distracted  by  the  requirements  of  spelling,  punctuation  and 
penmanship.  This  rule  should  be  strictly  followed,  since, 
in  written  expression,  one  part  of  the  work  must  be,  to  a 
great  extent,  automatic. 


148  Public  School  Methods 

(6)  The  outlines  and  suggestions  given  for  the  lessons  on 
Lilacs  can  be  used  as  types  of  the  work  to  be  done  when 
using  other  pictures  as  the  basis  of  written  lessons. 

26.  Other  Subjects  for  Lessons.  The  same  principles 
underlie  lessons  based  upon  flowers  or  other  actual  objects 
belonging  to  the  world  of  nature;  also  to  those  based  upon 
interesting  manufactured  articles,  such  as  toys,  textile 
fabrics,  bird-houses,  doll-houses,  articles  of  furniture,  geog- 
raphy topics  in  the  third  grade,  and  the  like. 

In  each  case,  the  illustration  is  to  be  carefully  studied 
first-hand.  Observation  for  ideas,  then  oral  language  for 
expression,  and,  last,  expression  by  means  of  standard  written 
forms  is  the  invariable  order  to  be  followed. 

27.  Language  through  Literature.  With  older  pupils, 
and  with  primary  pupils  to  a  limited  degree,  the  subject 
of  the  written  lesson  may  be  intangible  in  form,  derived 
from  a  fable,  anecdote,  story  or  poem  told  or  read  to  the 
class.  Then  follows  much  practice  in  oral  reproduction ; 
later,  a  very  brief  written  reproduction  and,  later  still,  a 
written  longer  reproduction  with  or  without  the  help  of 
questions,  according  to  the  age  and  advancement  of  the 
pupils. 

Brief  written  reviews  may  also  be  required,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  various  oral  lessons  given. 

28.  Written  Reviews.  The  following  suggest  what  may 
be  used  during  the  last  part  of  the  first  year  of  school, 
providing  the  proper  lessons  have  been  given  and  oral 
reviews  previously  required.  Give  one,  two  or  three  ques- 
tions for  one  lesson. 

(a)  Blackboard  Outline.  Mother  Nature's  House. 
What  is  Mother  Nature's  house?  What  color  is  her  house 
in  spring  and  summer?  What  color  is  it  in  November? 
What  color  is  it  in  winter? 

How  does  Mother  Nature  sweep  her  house?  What  is 
her  strongest  broom?  How  does  she  wash  her  windows? 
How  is  her  scrubbing  done?  How  is  her  house  dried  and 
warmed  ? 


Language  149 

(b)  The  Story  (Approximate).  The  earth  is  Mother 
Nature's  house.  It  is  green  in  spring  and  summer.  In 
November  it  is  brown.     In  winter  it  is  white. 

Mother  Nature  sweeps  her  house  with  the  winds.  The 
March  wind  is  her  strongest  broom.  She  washes  her  windows 
with  April  showers.  The  rains  do  her  scrubbing.  The  sun 
dries  and  warms  her  house. 

29.  For  the  Latter  Part  of  Second  Tear,  (a)  Blackboard 
Outline.  Mother  Nature's  Carpets.  Does  Mother  Nature 
use  the  same  carpet  all  the  year?  When  is  her  carpet  brown? 
When  does  she  use  a  soft  white  carpet?  How  is  this  carpet 
made?  When  and  how  is  this  white  carpet  destroyed?  What 
is  the  color  of  Mother  Nature's  spring  carpet? 

What  flowers  do  you  find  in  this  pattern?  How  often 
is  this  flower-pattern  changed?  What  flowers  do  you  find 
in  Mother  Nature's  August  and  September  carpet?  What 
are  scattered  all  over  her  October  carpet?  Which  of  Mother 
Nature's  carpets  do  girls  like  best?  Which  one  do  boys 
like  best?  Which  of  Mother  Nature's  carpets  is  used  the 
longest  without  much  change? 

(b)  The  Story  (Approximate).  Mother  Nature  does 
not  use  one  carpet  all  the  year.  Her  carpet  is  brown  in 
November.  It  is  soft  and  white  in  winter.  This  white 
carpet  is  made  by  the  snowflakes.  The  sun  and  the  south 
wind  spoil  it  in  the  spring.  Mother  Nature's  spring  carpet 
is  green. 

There  are  yellow  dandelions  and  blue  violets  and  some 
other  flowers  in  the  pattern.  The  pattern  is  changed  every 
month  from  May  to  October.  In  August  and  September 
Mother  Nature's  carpet  has  asters  and  goldenrod  and  pansies 
in  the  pattern.  The  October  carpet  has  bright  leaves  all 
over  it.  Most  girls  like  the  spring  carpet  the  best,  but  some 
like  the  October  carpet  the  most.  Boys  like  Mother  Nature's 
October  carpet  and  her  winter  carpet.  I  think  the  winter 
carpet  is  used  the  longest. 

Caution.  Remember  that  these  answers  will  vary  some- 
what, according  to  locality. 


150  Public  School  Methods 

30.  For   the   Last   Part   of    the    Third   Year,     (a)  Black- 
board Outline.     Mother  Nature's  Children. 
(i)  Name  some  of  Mother  Nature's  children. 

(2)  Which  ones  are  masons?  Which  ones  are  drummers? 
Which  ones  are  weavers  ?  Which  ones  are  fishermen  ?  Which 
ones  are  divers?  Which  ones  are  carpenters?  Which  ones 
make  honey? 

(3)  Which  ones  furnish  music?  Which  ones  run  very- 
fast?  Which  ones  carry  lanterns?  Which  ones  are  the 
tallest?     Which  ones  have  the  prettiest  clothing? 

(4)  Which  ones  give  us  sugar?  Which  one  sgive  us  nuts? 
Which  ones  always  have  needles  to  spare?  Which  ones 
make  paper  houses? 

(5)  Which  ones  sleep  several  months  of  the  year?  When 
does  Mother  Nature  awaken  them? 

(6)  Which  do  you  like  mostr    Tell  why. 

(7)  Which  of  Mother  Nature's  children  give  the  most  help 
to  people? 

(b)  The  Story  (Approximate),  (i)  Horses,  cows,  sheep, 
birds,  insects,  reptiles,  flowers,  trees — all  kinds  of  animals 
and  all  kinds  of  plants  are  Mother  Nature's  children. 

(2)  Barn  swallows,  bank  swallows,  swifts  and  beavers  are 
masons.  Partridges  and  woodpeckers  are  drummers.  Orioles, 
vireos  and  a  few  other  birds  are  weavers.  Fish-hawks  are 
fishermen.  All  kinds  of  ducks  are  divers.  The  beavers  and 
woodpeckers  are  carpenters.     The  bees  make  honey. 

(3)  The  birds  furnishmusic.  The  rabbits,  deer  and  squirrels 
can  run  very  fast.  The  fireflies  always  carry  lanterns.  The 
trees  are  the  tallest  of  the  children.  Flowers,  birds  and 
butterflies  wear  the  prettiest  clothes. 

(4)  Sugar  cane,  beets  and  maple  trees  give  us  sugar.  The 
beech,  walnut,  oak,  butternut,  chestnut,  almond  and  some 
other  trees  give  us  nuts.  The  pine  tree  has  thousands  of 
needles.     Wasps  make  paper  houses. 

(5)  Woodchucks,  bears,  frogs,  toads,  snakes  and  many 
plants  sleep  all  winter.  Mother  Nature  wakes  all  of  them 
in  the  spring. 


10 


Painted  for  Public  School  Methods  by  the  ah  Institute.  Chlcano 
MOTHER  NATURE'S  CHILDREN 
1— Birds  furnish  music.     2— Barn  swallows  are  mason..     3     Beai 
carpenters.     4— Wasps  make  paper  houses.     5— The  bear  sleeps  all   win 
and    woodpeckers    are   drummers.     7— Ducks  are  divers.     8      Butterfhe     and  flower 
pretty  clothing.     9     The  crane  is  a  fisherman.      10     Orioles  are  wea 


Language  151 

(6)  I  like  to  look  at  all  of  Mother  Nature's  children,  but 
I  don't  want  snakes  and  tigers  and  lions  near  me  when  they 
are  loose.  I  like  the  pretty  colors  of  some  of  Mother  Nature's 
children,  and  it  is  fun  to  watch  s:>me  of  them  move.  I  like 
to  hear  the  birds  sing,  and  I  like  to  have  some  of  the  animals 
and  birds  show  their  love  to  me. 

(7)  I  think  cows  and  horses  help  people  more  than  most 
of  the  children. 

Review  the  calendar  at  the  close  of  the  month. 

Cautions.  (1)  Keep  in  mind  that  similar  reviews  may 
be  written,  having  all  the  questions  limited  to  one  topic, 
as  trees,  flowers,  bees,  butterflies,  frogs,  etc.  The  one  above 
is  general  in  character  and  should  not  be  attempted  until 
a  great  many  specific  reviews,  both  oral  and  written,  have 
been  given. 

(2)  Do  not  attempt  to  secure  uniform  answers.  Encourage 
originality  of  expression  so  long  as  the  work  is  correct  in 
regard  to  facts  and  forms. 

(3)  Adapt  the  review  questions  to  suit  the  locality  as 
well  as  the  ability  of  the  pupils. 

(4)  Be  extremely  careful  that  all  blackboard  work  is 
absolutely  correct  in  all  respects.  Pupils  do  not  need  the 
teacher's  example  to  teach  them  careless  habits. 

(5)  The  lessons  written  by  the  children,  by  the  aid  of 
blackboard  outlines,  usually  result  in  a  story  having  con- 
siderable continuity  and  a  fair  degree  of  smoothness  in 
language  and  style.  Occasionally,  an  exercise  like  the  last 
is  given,  in  which  the  purpose  is  chiefly  to  test  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  pupils.  In  such  exercises,  however,  the  law  of 
association  should  be  kept  in  mind  and  the  questions  should 
be  arranged  accordingly. 

(6)  These  written  exercises  are  preparing  the  way  for 
more  difficult  work  on  composition  writing  in  later  years. 
Owing  to  the  dread  that  pupils  feel  when  the  word  composi- 
tion is  used,  it  is  better  to  speak  of  written  reviews,  tests, 
and  so  on,  and  let  the  pupils  really  write  compositions  with- 
out thinking  of  doing  so. 


152  Public  School  Methods 

(7)  To  keep  out  errors  and  prevent  discouragement,  the 
motto  must  be  "Slow  and  sure." 

(8)  Teach  all  pupils  that  accuracy  and  neatness  always 
rank  higher  than  speed.  Speed  and  fluency  will  come  from 
repetition  and  practice.  The  results  will  be  more  rapid  as 
the  difficulties  of  penmanship  and  mechanical  forms  are 
conquered. 

(9)  Let  children  "learn  to  do  by  doing;"  give  written 
exercises  frequently,  having  every  new  form  first  presented 
and  drilled  upon  orally. 

(10)  The  written  work  as  outlined  will  be  too  difficult 
to  finish  in  the  third  grade  and  should  be  carried  into  the 
fourth  and  fifth  grades,  and  possibly  higher. 

31.  Rhythm  and  Rhyme.  Continue  simple  exercises  in 
rhythm  and  rhyme.  Encourage  the  little  folks  to  make 
rhymed  couplets,  to  write  longer  compositions  in  rhythm 
without  rhyme.  Read  to  the  children  a  great  number  of' 
good  poems  within  their  comprehension,  for  education  in 
appreciation  and  taste,  and  for  the  unconscious  training  in 
use  of  words,  poetic  expression,  etc.,  afforded.  After  read- 
ing to  the  children  sea  poems  entire  or  in  part,  by  Barry 
Cornwall,  Proctor  and  Longfellow,  and  having  the  class 
memorize  parts,  the  children  might  try  writing  sea-verses. 
Among  the  verses  composed  by  one  class  was  the  following: 


The  waves  roll  in 

With  an  angry  roar, 

The  sea-birds  sail  and  cry; 

The  boat  comes  in 

With  its  white  wings  spread 

And  all  are  warm  and  dry. 

32.  Initials  and  Abbreviations.  Before  the  third  year 
closes,  the  children  should  be  taught  how  to  write  initial 
letters  instead  of  full  names,  when  desired.  They  should 
also  be  taught  how  to  use  the  simpler  forms  of  abbrevia- 
tions, as  those  for  the  days  of  the  week,  months  of  the  year 
and  for  their  native  country  and  state.     Exercises  on  these 


Language  153 

may  be  given  to  fill  some  of  the  periods  for  seat  work.  The 
learning  of  abbreviations  should  be  extended  into  the  fourth 
year  and  continued  until  all  those  in  common  use  are  mastered. 

Abbreviations  are  uninteresting  of  themselves,  hence 
difficult  to  learn.  Furnish  motives  for  their  mastery,  as  the 
different  forms  in  letter  writing,  street  names,  etc.  In  other 
words,  teach  as  required.  Matches,  conducted  like  spelling 
matches,  will  aid  in  fixing  habit,  and  cause  the  work  to  be 
done  more  cheerfully  and  easily. 

Caution.  It  should  not  be  forgotten  that  all  the  language 
forms  begun  in  the  primary  grades  need  lifelong  practice  in 
order  to  keep  them  perfectly  in  mind  on  all  occasions. 

33.  Teaching  English  to  Foreigners.  There  are  many 
children  who  enter  our  schools  without  even  a  speaking 
knowledge  of  the  English  language.  These  are  seriously 
handicapped  when  classed  with  pupils  who  have  never  used 
or  heard  any  other  language  than  English. 

With  the  children  of  foreign  parentage,  both  ear  and 
eye  must  have  constant  and  careful  training;  with  the 
strictly  American  children,  the  ear  is  already  trained  and 
a  large  spoken  vocabulary  is  freely  used,  all  of  which  proves 
that  a  double  work  must  be  done  for  the  less  fortunate 
pupils  or  they  will  remain  hopelessly  behind  their  class- 
mates. 

Added  to  the  timidity  that  all  children  feel  upon  enter- 
ing school,  those  who  have  little  or  no  knowledge  of  our 
language  are  rendered  painfully  self-conscious  because  of 
the  awkward  prominence  in  which  they  are  placed. 

How  to  help  such  children  learn  English,  in  the  shortest 
time  possible,  is  the  problem  that  confronts  the  teacher. 
The  best  method  to  follow  is  to  help  them,  first,  to  become 
well  acquainted  with  the  other  members  of  the  class,  since 
children  always  learn  from  children  much  faster  than  from 
adults.  No  notice  of  any  sort  should  be  taken  of  their 
awkwardness.  Not  a  word,  look  or  gesture  should  cause 
them  to  remember  that  they  are  different  from  the  rest  of 
the  class. 


154  Public  School  Methods 

All  general  directions  for  the  school  or  for  the  class  should 
be  given  in  English,  but,  for  some  time,  interpreted  by  some 
pupil  that  has  a  knowledge  of  both  languages.  If  no  such 
pupil  is  at  hand,  resort  to  the  most  expressive  pantomime 
that  can  be  invented.  Teach  the  names  of  objects,  names 
of  actions,  of  qualities  and  properties  of  objects,  by  present- 
ing the  name  as  the  object  is  handled  and  observed,  or  as 
the  activity  is  required.  Number,  drawing,  nature  study, 
construction  and  games  will  furnish  abundant  objective 
material.  Avoid  confusion  by  proceeding  slowly,  and  by 
repeating  the  exercises  frequently,  with  spirit. 

In  a  surprisingly  short  time  the  interpretations  will  not 
be  necessary,  unless  a  new  pupil  enters  or  a  new  form  of 
instruction  is  introduced. 

The  utmost  kindness  and  tact  will  be  needed  to  win  the 
full  confidence  of  these  little  strangers  and  wear  away  their 
natural  embarrassment.  (The  other  children  should  be 
talked  to  privately  and  their  friendly  cooperation  secured.) 
On  the  playground  their  tendency  will  be  to  withdraw  from 
the  others  and  spend  the  time  talking  together  in  their 
native  langauge.  This  should  quietly,  tactfully  but  per- 
sistently be  prevented.  See  that  they  are  drawn  into  all 
the  games  and  induced  to  participate  in  them.  Thus  the 
ear  will  get  constant  training,  and  the  interest  and  excite- 
ment of  the  sport  will  lead  them  to  talk  English  with  some 
freedom,  long  before  the  more  formal  indoor  exercises  bring 
this  result.  Songs  are  valuable  in  the  same  connection. 
See  Songs,  pages  187-202,  Sections  26-33. 

The  words  that  they  will  most  quickly  learn  are  the 
school  commands,  nouns  that  can  be  clearly  illustrated  by 
objects,  and  verbs  of  action.  The  latter  may  be  illustrated 
perfectly  by  having  the  action  performed  each  time  one  of 
these  verbs  is  used.  The  order  should  be  (1)  the  spoken 
word,  (2)  the  action,  (3)  the  written  word.  The  latter  should 
remain  upon  the  board  or  special  chart,  to  impress  itself 
upon  the  eye  and  become  familiar  to  all  the  class. 

Other  words  must  be  used  as  needed,   and  the  law  of 


Language  155 

association  will  help  these  children  to  become  familiar  with 
them.  Frequent  drills  upon  words  and  sounds  that  are 
found  to  be  especially  difficult  should  be  given  daily  to  the 
whole  school,  the  teacher  showing  all  the  pupils  just  how 
to  manage  the  vocal  organs  in  order  to  enunciate  properly. 

Suppose  certain  children  say  den  for  then.  All  should 
be  instructed  to  watch  the  teacher  and  do  as  she  does.  Place 
the  tongue  firmly  against  the  lower  edge  of  the  upper  teeth 
and  hold  it  there  while  then  is  sounded.  This  will  make  it 
impossible  to  say  den  and  will  bring  the  correct  pronuncia- 
tion. Similar  instruction  must  be  given  for  other  trouble- 
some sounds.  Much  more  drill  in  phonics  is  needed  than 
for  pupils  from  American  homes.  Much  more  practice  in 
speaking  English  is  necessary,  and  all  legitimate  means  must 
be  used  to  secure  the  needed  amount. 

Among  the  first  phrases,  they  should  learn  such  as  form 
the  social  currency  of  polite  society:  please,  if  you  please, 
thank  you,  good-bye,  good  morning,  good  night,  how  do  you 
do;  and  to  prevent  the  wrong  use  of  can:  may  I  go,  do, 
have,  etc. 

Surround  these  foreign  children  with  an  atmosphere  that 
is  kind,  sympathetic  and  courteous.  Keep  them  doing 
things  in  response  to  English  requests  or  commands.  Keep 
them  speaking  and  reading  English.  Have  them  build  or 
write  the  words  with  the  others  and  enter  into  all  exercises 
that  the  others  have;  also  provide  special  exercises. 

This  is  the  hardest  language  problem  that  confronts  the 
teacher,  but  it  has  been  successfully  worked  out,  time  and 
again,  by  the  methods  suggested.  Each  teacher  should  be 
able  to  add  various  devices  of  her  own  by  which  the  work  may 
be  hastened.  One  teacher  used  to  send  frequent  pleasant 
greetings  (in  English)  to  the  parents.  Another  had  each 
little  poem  memorized  in  school  repeated  at  home.  Another 
induced  the  children  to  play  school  at  home,  to  show  father 
and  mother  what  we  do  at  school. 

Cautions,  (i)  The  teacher  confronted  by  this  problem 
can  do  much  towards  solving  it  by  comparing  the  elementary 


156  Public  School  Methods 

sounds  in  the  two  languages  and  noticing  those  that  are  not 
common  to  both.  The  children  will  have  difficulty  in  articu- 
lating only  those  sounds  in  the  English  not  found  in  their 
own  language,  and  it  is  to  these  that  special  attention  should 
be  given. 

(2)  Remember  that  the  difficulty  which  these  children 
have  to  overcome  is  physiological,  so  teach  them  how  to  use 
their  vocal  organs;  then  give  frequent  drills  on  the  pronun- 
ciation of  the  difficult  sounds.  Simply  pronouncing  words 
to  these  pupils  is  time  and  effort  wasted. 

34.  Letter  Writing.  Children  are  always  intensely  interested 
in  sending  and  receiving  letters;  hence,  even  during  the  first 
year,  something  of  letter  writing  may  be  introduced  with 
pleasure  and  profit.  A  tiny  letter  to  Santa  Claus  just  before 
Christmas  will  make  a  pleasing  beginning  in  this  line.  In 
this,  the  pupils  should  carefully  copy  the  forms  for  opening 
and  closing  from  models  written  on  the  board  by  the  teacher. 
They  should  also  copy  the  superscription  for  the  envelope. 
The  body  of  the  letter  should  be  original  but  very  brief. 
Usually  this  part  consists  of  but  one  or  two  short  sentences, 
in  which  Santa  Claus  is  told  what  present  is  most  desired  at 
Christmas  time. 

The  next  attempt  may  be  deferred  until  February  and 
consist  of  a  little  valentine  to  father  or  mother,  or  to  both. 
If  other  letters  are  written  during  the  year,  one  may  be  an 
invitation  to  a  birthday  party,  and  another  a  little  note  of 
thanks  for  some  gift  or  favor.  They  should  conform  in  all 
respects  to  the  forms  prescribed  by  correct  usage,  and  be 
written  with  the  utmost  care.  Much  greater  interest  will 
be  felt  if  correct  note  paper  can  be  used  and  the  letters  sent 
through  the  regular  postoffice  or  delivered  by  a  special  mes- 
senger. 

In  all  these  efforts,  the  writers  should  be  permitted  to 
ask  how  to  make  any  letter,  how  to  spell  any  word  or  how  to 
use  any  mark  of  punctuation.  Pride  must  be  called  in  to 
secure  correctness  and  neatness. 

During  the  second  and  third  years,  the  letters  may  be  a 


Language  157 

little  longer  and  a  little  more  frequent.  From  the  third  grade 
on,  children  should  be  encouraged  to  decide  upon  the  number 
of  topics  to  appear  in  the  letter,  and  to  keep  to  the  paragraph 
scheme  in  correspondence  as  in  other  written  exercises. 
"How  many  things  are  you  planning  to  tell  your  friend?" 
"In  what  order  will  you  arrange  them?"  "What  will  help 
you  decide  as  to  the  order?"  are  questions  that  should  be 
repeatedly  asked  when  pupils  begin  to  write  friendly  or  social 
letters. 

A  letter  to  some  dear  friend  or  relative  may  be  written 
after  Christmas  to  tell  of  gifts.  One  may  be  written  after 
a  birthday  or  picnic,  telling  how  the  day  was  spent.  Boys 
may  write  to  some  chum  and  describe  a  dog  or  some  other 
pet  animal,  a  new  sled,  a  nutting  party,  a  toboggan  slide, 
etc.  A  letter  may  be  written  to  a  child  in  another  part  of 
the  country.  Almost  every  teacher  is  acquainted  with 
some  teacher  living  far  enough  away  to  make  an  interchange 
of  letters  a  source  of  real  educational  value. 

Caution.  It  is  all-important  that  the  writer  has  some- 
thing of  vivid  interest  to  himself  that  he  may  make  the  cause 
of  his  letter;  therefore,  study  the  children  individually,  to  learn 
of  their  tastes  and  their  personal  belongings,  before  assigning 
the  topics  for  letters.  The  teacher  should  never  ask  children 
to  write  letters  or  other  exercises  upon  abstract  themes. 

Original  Writings.  Encourage  originality.  Have 
pupils  read  aloud  to  the  class  their  little  original  productions 
Urge  them  to  write  out  their  "made  up"  stories,  and  let 
them  be  read  aloud  to  the  class.  The  following  is  the  best 
of  a  series  of  original  fanciful  explanations  of  the  origin  of 
the  common  flowers — dandelion,  violet,  etc.  It  is  selected 
because  it  was  written  by  a  child  who  developed  power  and 
ability  in  written  language  through  writing  as  just  suggested : 

THE    FIRST    DANDELION1 

The  beautiful  god  Balder  was  always  smiling.  The  little  elves 
loved  to  gather  together  and  watch  his  sweet  smile.  They  were 
fond  of  it. 


1  Florence  Reid,  School  of  Education,  University  of  Chicago. 


158  Public  School  Methods 

When  Balder  died,  his  smile  left  him.  Odin  kept  it,  for  it  was 
very  precious.     The  elves  were  sad,  for  they  missed  it. 

One  day  they  thought  of  a  plan.  They  went  to  Odin  and  said, 
"Please  give  us  a  piece  of  Balder's  smile.  We  only  ask  for  a  tiny 
corner  of  it.     We  would  be  so  happy  to  have  it." 

"But  how  could  you  carry  it,  you  funny  little  men?"  asked  Odin. 

"O,  we  will  carry  it  in  our  hands,"  they  replied.  Odin  thought 
they  were  so  cute  that  he  snipped  off  a  little  scrap  with  his  gold 
scissors  and  gave  it  to  them.     How  they  laughed! 

The  elves  kept  their  treasure  down  in  the  earth  and  looked  at 
it  every  day.  One  day  when  it  was  spring  on  the  earth,  one  of  the 
little  elves  said,  "We  are  selfish  to  keep  Balder's  smile  down  here. 
The  people  on  earth  love  his  smile,  too."  So  they  gave  the  smile 
power  to  push  its  way  up  through  the  rocks  and  become  a  flower. 
We  call  Balder's  smile  the  dandelion. 

35.  Memorizing  Selections.  To  store  the  memory  of  the 
pupils  with  brief  extracts  from  choice  literature  is  one  of  the 
highest  services  that  the  teacher  renders,  since  these  gems 
help  to  form  a  taste  for  pure  literature  and  impart  valuable 
lessons  in  right  feeling,  right  thinking  and  right  conduct, 
lessons  which  will  remain  with  the  learner  long  after  his 
school  days  are  ended. 

The  selections  for  primary  grades  may  be  in  verse  or  prose, 
but  they  should  always  be  brief  and  chosen  for  beauty  of 
language  as  well  as  for  their  ethical  value.  To  teach  the 
name  of  the  author  in  connection  with  the  selection  is  to 
assist  the  pupil  later  in  the  study  of  literature.  These  selec- 
tions are  of  practical  value  in  enriching  the  vocabulary  and 
widening  the  field  of  conversation.  A  teacher  in  these  days 
need  not  be  troubled  to  find  suitable  quotations  for  any 
grade.  For  example,  the  best  series  of  school  readers  abound 
in  them,  and  many  compilations  are  to  be  found.  The  Psalms 
and  Proverbs  of  the  Old  Testament  contain  some  of  the  most 
valuable  thoughts  for  school  use  to  be  found  in  any  literature, 
and  have  the  additional  advantage  of  being  clothed  in  simple 
language,  full  of  dignity  and  impressiveness. 

The  work  with  quotations  should  be  extended  in  all 
grades  to  include  the  memorizing  of  beautiful  and  appro- 
priate poems.     For  use  in  the  primary  rooms  the  poems 


Language  159 

should  be  musical  and  present  pictures  in  figures  of  speech 
easy  to  comprehend.  The  prevailing  sentiment  should  vary, 
being  sometimes  tenderly  affectionate,  sometimes  in  parts 
grave  almost  to  sadness,  but  often  playful  and  joyous  from 
the  beginning  to  the  end.  The  poems  should  be  suited  to  the 
season  or  the  occasion,  often  rounding  out  some  special  lesson. 

The  works  of  Longfellow,  Whittier,  Holmes,  Alice  and 
Phoebe  Cary,  Lucy  Larcom,  Helen  Hunt  Jackson,  Celia 
Thaxter,  Eugene  Field,  James  Whitcomb  Riley,  Margaret 
E.  Sangster,  Robert  Louis  Stevenson,  George  MacDonald, 
and  many  others  that  we  have  not  space  to  enumerate,  are 
full  of  poems  well  worth  memorizing.  But  all  these  may 
not  be  accessible  to  teachers  who  are  away  from  the  great 
library  centers ;  hence,  we  again  suggest  turning  to  the  lead- 
ing educational  journals  for  help. 

There  are  also  several  small  volumes  of  poems  compiled 
for  primary  children,  the  selections  being  carefully  chosen 
for  their  interest,  value  and  adaptation  to  the  season  of  the 
year  or  the  grade  of  school.  Among  the  best  of  these  are 
Songs  of  the  Tree-Top  and  Meadow  (Public  School  Publishing 
Company,  Bloomington,  111.),  and  Graded  Memory  Selections 
(Educational  Publishing  Company,  Chicago). 

St.  Nicholas  and  other  magazines  for  children  are  con- 
stantly presenting  poems  that  are  new  and  charming,  both 
in  substance  and  in  form.  In  fact,  there  is  really  "an  em- 
barrassment of  riches"  in  this  field,  and  it  remains  to  the 
teacher  to  cull  those  really  worth  while  for  her  pupils  to 
memorize. 

Cautions,  (i)  Teach  at  least  one  new  poem  each  month, 
reviewing  one  or  more  each  day. 

(2)  Teach  with  the  utmost  care  the  correct  pronunciation 
of  words  and  the  proper  use  of  inflections  and  emphasis,  so 
as  to  bring  out  the  proper  meaning  correctly  and  sympa- 
thetically, with  clear  tones  and  distinct  utterance. 

(3)  The  most  of  this  teaching  can  be  done  by  means  of 
concert  work,  but  individual  pupils  should  be  called  upon 
daily  to  recite  a  stanza  or  an  entire  poem. 


160  Public  School  Methods 

(4)  Long  poems  are  not  satisfactory  for  primary  children 
to  memorize,  although  they  greatly  enjoy  hearing  a  long 
poem  read,  particularly  if  it  contains  a  story  they  can  under- 
stand. 

36.  Conclusion.  No  special  text-book  on  language  is 
needed  for  the  use  of  primary  pupils.  Teachers  should  have 
several  good  grammars  at  hand  for  reference,  but  should  be 
so  familiar  with  the  subject  as  to  make  frequent  reference 
unnecessary. 

During  the  first  two  years,  no  separate  period  is  needed 
for  either  oral  or  written  language,  provided  the  teacher  keeps 
in  mind  the  various  necessary  phases  of  her  work.  Other- 
wise, incidental  teaching  is  a  failure.  The  oral  language  is 
a  necessary  part  of  every  school  exercise,  both  formal  and 
informal.  The  small  amount  of  written  work  required  may 
be  done  in  some  of  the  periods  allotted  to  seat  work.  Slates 
and  pencils,  blackboard  and  crayons  should  be  used  alter- 
nately, in  order  that  change  of  position  and  change  for  the 
different  sets  of  muscles  used  may  be  obtained. 

In  the  third  year,  and  beyond,  the  greater  pa;t  of  the 
oral  language  work  continues  as  a  part  of  the  otl  sr  school 
exercises.  A  separate  period  is  needed  for  the  written 
work,  the  technical  forms  being  more  numerous  and  difficult 
and  the  exercises  of  greater  length. 

Each  method  of  teaching  language  has  its  ardent  devotees, 
and  it  is  seldom  that  a  method  is  projected  that  is  wholly 
without  merit.  Some  few  of  the  many  have  numerous 
excellent  points  to  commend  them.  However,  i1  remains 
true  that  as  long  as  children,  localities  and  en\  'ronment 
differ  as  they  do  to-day,  no  one  method  will  be  abl  to  meet 
all  the  requirements  made  by  these  differences. 

37.  Aids.  There  are  numerous  grammars  and  language 
books  on  the  market,  many  of  which  are  too  well  cnown  to 
need  mention  here. 

Among  the  later  ones  published,  in  which  are  fou  id  help- 
ful suggestions  for  teaching  language,  chiefly  for  pupils 
beyond  the  third  grade,  are  the  following: 


Language  161 

Language  Lessons  from  Literature,  Book  One.    Cooley.     Houghton 
Mifflin  &  Co. 

Language  Exercises.     Metcalf  &  Bright.     American  Book  Com- 
pany. 

Everyday  English,  Book  One.     Rankin.     Educational  Publishing 
Company. 

Elements  of  Composition  and  Grammar.     Southworth  &  Goddard. 
Benj.  H.  Sanborn  &  Co.,  Chicago. 


TEST  QUESTIONS 

i.  Of  the  children  living  in  the  country  and  those  living 
in  the  city,  which  do  you  think  are  the  better  prepared  for 
language  work  when  they  enter  school?  Give  your  reasons 
for  your  answer. 

2.  What  mental  powers  are  trained  by  requiring  pupils 
to  reproduce  stories  that  are  told  or  read  to  them?  Are 
there  any  dangers  for  the  teacher  to  guard  against  in  such 
an  exercise?     If  so,  what  are  they? 

3.  What  do  you  understand  by  "every  lesson  a  language 
lesson"  \fi)  as  it  applies  to  the  teacher?  (2)  as  it  applies  to 
the  pupHs? 

4.  Why  should  similes  and  metaphors  be  taught  in 
primary  grades?  What  figures  of  speech  are  frequently 
used  too  much  in  these  grades? 

5.  What  do  you  expect  your  pupils  to  gain  from  memo- 
rizing short  poems  and  other  selections  of  choice  literature? 
How  wiR  you  teach  these  lessons  so  as  to  secure  the  desired 
results? 

6.  Hf'w  can  the  written  exercises  in  other  subjects  be 
made  t  ^  assist  the  work  in  language?  How  do  these  exer- 
cises oft  n  hinder  the  work  in  language? 

7.  W  lat  do  pupils  gain  from  copying  stanzas  of  poetry 
and  short  paragraphs  from  selections  of  prose?  What  must 
the  teacher  do  to  have  them  derive  the  greatest  benefit  from 
this  exercise? 

8.  To  what  extent  should  letter  writing  be  taught  in  the 
third  grade?     Outline  a  lesson  for  beginning  this  work. 


162  Public  School  Methods 

9.  Why  are  children  so  prone  to  use  the  incorrect  language 
learned  at  home  and  on  the  playground,  instead  of  the  cor- 
rect forms  learned  at  school?  How  can  this  tendency  be 
lessened? 

10.  Is  it  wise  to  have  pupils  criticise  one  another's  lan- 
guage ?    Why  ? 


CHAPTER  SIX 

DRAMATIZATION,  STORY  TELLING,  GAMES,   SONGS 

DRAMATIZATION 

1.  Use  and  Abuse.  "Dramatization"  has  entered  the 
schoolroom  as  an  educative  factor  so  generally  that  its  uses 
and  abuses  should  be  considered  by  the  thoughtful  teacher. 
To  "dramatize"  a  reading  lesson,  so  that  the  result  will 
be  a  better  comprehension  of  the  situation  and  a  real  advance 
in  the  power  of  expression  on  the  part  of  the  children,  is 
really  to  use  dramatization  educatively,  to  get  the  children 
to  act  in  a  "show,"  however  effective,  is  to  abuse  dramatiza- 
tion as  a  schoolroom  factor,  and  this  misuse  has  sometimes 
brought  dramatization  into  disrepute. 

2.  A  Distinction.  The  cloudiness  in  the  minds  of  teachers 
as  to  the  value  and  use  of  the  dramatic  will  vanish  largely 
when  the  following  distinctions  are  clear.  Dramatic  instinct 
is  common  to  every  child.  It  is  inherent  in  the  dull,  slow 
child  as  well  as  in  the  brilliant  one.  It  is  one  of  the  pro- 
visions of  nature  for  supplying  to  the  soul  the  experience 
it  craves.  It  is  what  moves  every  child  (unless,  indeed, 
he  has  been  made  too  self-conscious)  to  want  to  act  in  a 
play — to  want  to  take  part  in  "playing  the  thing  out." 
Dramatic  talent,  however,  is  the  gift  given  to  but  a  few  bright, 
expressive  children,  who,  because  of  it,  seem  instinctively 
to  know  how  to  express  things  dramatically.  It  is  no  part 
of  a  teacher's  business  to  cultivate  dramatic  talent;  it  is 
decidedly  her  business  to  make  educative  use  of  dramatic 
instinct  in  her  pupils.  This  instinct,  when  utilized,  gives 
an  opportunity  for  self-realization,  for  development  of  the 
imagination,  for  general  initiative,  that  can  hardly  be  over- 
estimated. 

3.  General  Directions.  (i)  Let  the  children  arrange 
the  setting.  Suppose  the  story  of  The  Three  Bears,  either 
in  the  narrative  form  or  in  the  dramatic  form,  is  to  be  read. 

163 


164  Public  School  Methods 

The  teacher  says,  "Who  wants  to  be  the  Big  Bear?  the 
Tiny  Bear?"  Then  she  asks,  "Who  will  place  the  chairs 
as  the  story  says?"  and  so  on,  until  the  children  have  arranged 
the  stage,  chosen  the  parts,  etc. 

(2)  Be  patient.  The  teacher  must  proceed  patiently, 
keeping  in  mind  that  it  is  the  development  of  power  to 
think,  to  control  action,  to  search  in  the  sentence  for  the 
thought,  and  then  to  attempt — often  crudely  enough — to 
express  it  in  word  and  in  action;  in  short,  the  development 
of  the  child  through  dramatic  instinct  is  what  she  is  after, 
not  a  finished  dramatic  production.  She  must  say,  for 
instance,  "  How  do  you  think  the  bear  felt  when  he  saw 
Golden  Hair?  Show  us,"  rather  than  imposing  her  ideas 
by  directing,  "  Now  look  surprised."  That  is  to  say,  where 
the  dramatization  seems  weak,  strengthen  it  from  the 
inside,  by  dealing  with  the  idea  that  prompts  the  expres- 
sion. 

(3)  Choose  the  slow,  unexpressive  children  often,  not  the 
showy,  pushing,  expressive  ones  always,  for  the  principal 
parts.  The  trained  imagination  is  one  of  the  potent  factors 
for  good  in  life,  and  it  is  the  commonplace,  the  average  child, 
or  the  stupid  one,  who  requires  this  training.  If,  on  the 
contrary,  the  expressive  child  reads  the  expressive  part, 
vanity,  self-esteem,  sophistication  are  cultivated,  and  we 
have  the  sorry  exhibition  of  reading  or  acting  described  as 
cute,  cunning,  bright,  and  the  like.  Such  over-training, 
over-stimulating  with  unnatural  results  is  what  may  rob 
dramatic  activities  in  the  school  of  their  beneficial  effects 
and  may  cause  them  to  receive  deserved  censure. 

(4)  Accept  real  and  earnest  effort,  crude  and  halting 
though  it  may  be,  and  do  not  attempt  to  direct,  or  improve 
very  much,  the  little  child's  rendering,  or  the  real  educative 
value  may  be  lost  in  self-consciousness  and  affectation.  Much 
costuming  or  staging  are  out  of  place  here,  where  the  imagina- 
tion should  supply  them. 

(5)  The  interest  in  playing  the  reading  lessons,  or  in  mak- 
ing plays  of  stories  told  (See  Story  Telling,  Sections  7-13) 


Dramatization,  Story  Telling,  Games   Songs  165 

is  so  great  that  the  children  are  willing  to  work  hard  to  read 
or  to  write  the  parts  used.  Of  this  the  teacher  should  take 
advantage  in  teaching  reading  and  composition.  There  is 
a  subtle  change  in  expression,  improvement  in  articulation 
and  in  the  general  imaging  of  the  situation,  when,  after 
some  prosy  oral  reading,  the  teacher  says,  "Mary,  take  the 
part  of  the  ant  and  Anna  take  the  part  of  the  grasshopper, 
and  go  on  with  what  they  say."  It  is  not  mere  theory  that 
the  teacher's  burden  in  teaching  reading  is  thereby  lightened ; 
it  is  a  fact.  She  has  called  to  her  assistance  a  vital  child- 
interest.  In  a  valuable  course  of  study  appears  the  follow- 
ing: "Dramatic  rendering  is  an  integral  part  in  the  work 
of  teaching  reading — it  is  more  than  a  preparation  for  read- 
ing; dramatization  is  reading  in  the  fullest  sense."  Where 
the  children  work  out  orally  each  step  in  the  play,  the  teacher 
writing  it  on  the  board  as  composed,  as  in  the  play  of  The 
Lion  and  the  Mouse,  made  for  a  second  grade  class  by  a 
third  grade  class  (see  pages  79-81,  Section  20),  the  play  is 
likely  to  be  well  adapted  to  children  and  to  admit  of  good, 
natural  acting. 

4.  Material.  Plays  are  readily  made  up  and  played  by 
the  children,  with  a  little  encouragement  from  stories  told 
in  the  story-telling  period.  (See  Story  Telling,  Sections 
7-13).  Only  certain  stories,  however,  are  essentially  dramatic. 
Some  cannot  be  acted  because  there  is  little  happening  in 
them,  as  in  descriptive  tales,  for  example.  But  the  children's 
favorite  stories  are  likely  to  be  easily  dramatized.  The 
Adventures  of  Odysseus,  Aesop's  Fables,  Little  Red  Riding 
Hood,  Golden  Hair  and  the  Three  Bears,  Jack  and  the  Bean- 
stalk, Billy  Goat  Gruff,  Snow-White,  and  a  scoie  of  children's 
classical  tales  are  full  of  dramatic  situations,  worked  out 
with  clear-cut  characters,  to  a  very  evident  climax. 

5.  Illustrative  Lesson.  The  following  simple  dramatic 
rendering  of  the  facts  that  bees  gather  nectar  and  pollen 
and  make  it  into  beebread,  working  hard  all  day  in  the 
sunshine,  shows  the  relation  that  dramatization  may  bear 
to  nature  study. 


166  Public  School  Methods 

The  teacher  should  draw  a  picture  of  two  bees  touching 
feelers,  a  hive  and  some  flowers. 

THE    BUSY    ONES 

For  First  Grade 

First  Bee:     Buzz!     How  do  you  do? 

Second  Bee:     Buzz!     How  do  you  do? 

First  Bee:  Follow  me.  Far,  far  we  fly.  I  have  found 
some  flowers.     They  are  so  full  of  nectar. 

(The  bees  carry  the  nectar  to  the  hive.  Other  bees  make 
it  into  honey.) 

Second  Bee:  Follow  me.  Far,  far  we  fly.  I  have  found 
some  flowers.     They  are  full  of  pollen. 

(The  bees  carry  the  pollen  to  the  hive.  Other  bees  make 
it  into  beebread.) 

Both  Bees.  Buzz'  Buzz!  The  sun  has  gone.  Let  us 
go  to  the  hive. 

(Then  they  fly  slowly  to  the  hive.  The  busy  bees  have 
worked  all  day.) 

6.  Work  for  the  Third  Grade.  Teachers  often  drop 
dramatization  at  the  end  of  the  first  or  second  year,  and 
thus  stifle  the  dramatic  instinct  in  the  children.  This  feature 
of  reading  is  as  valuable  in  the  third  grade  as  in  those  below. 
In  fact,  there  is  no  grade  in  which  dramatization  may  not 
at  times  be  used  to  good  effect.  Some  selections  in  the 
third  readers  lend  themselves  readily  to  this  line  of  work, 
but  others,  particularly  selections  abounding  in  description, 
do  not.  The  children  like  best  those  stories  found  in  the 
reader  and  taken  from  other  sources,  which  are  full  of  action, 
and  which  for  this  reason  can  be  readily  dramatized. 

Dramatization  in  this  grade  affords  one  of  the  best  means 
of  preventing  undue  self-consciousness  mentioned  in  Sec- 
tion 3,  provided  securing  expression  is  the  chief  aim.  The 
following  suggestions  will  aid  in  avoiding  difficulties  and 
in  securing  desired  results; 

(i)  Avoid  all  show.  Let  the  class  read  as  usual  until 
the  portion  of  the  lesson  containing  the  dialogue  is  reached, 


Dramatization,  Story  Telling,  Games,  Songs  167 

then   assign   the   parts   and   allow   the  reading  to   proceed. 
Each  pupil  may  read  the  part  assigned  him  whenever  it  occurs. 

(2)  Let  the  reading  be  interpretative,  not  imitative.  The 
pupils  should  give  more  attention  to  expressing  the  thought 
in  the  selection  than  to  the  actions  and  feelings  of  the  char- 
acter which  they  represent.  Such  imitation  leads  to  self- 
consciousness,  and  often  tends  to  turn  what  is  designed  to 
be  a  means  for  securing  good  expression  into  a  mere  show. 

(3)  Avoid  memorizing,  except  when  the  selection  is 
brief.  Let  the  exercise  be  simply  one  means  of  securing 
good  expression,  and  on  a  par  with  other  exercises  used 
with  different  selections  for  a  like  purpose. 

(4)  Put  yourself  in  sympathy  with  the  selection  and  the 
plan  of  presenting  it.  Unless  you  can  do  this,  probably  you 
would   better  not  attempt   dramatization   with   this  grade. 

STORY    TELLING 

7.  Value.  G.  Stanley  Hall  is  quoted  as  saying  that  the 
first  essential  to  success  in  a  primary  teacher  is  the  ability 
to  tell  a  story  well.  Sarah  Cone  Bryant,  in  her  admirable 
little  book,  How  to  Tell  Stories  to  Children,  insists  that  the 
telling  of  a  story  is  as  truly  a  work  of  art  as  painting  a  beauti- 
ful picture  or  writing  a  poem. 

Be  this  as  it  may,  the  power  to  tell  or  to  read  a  story 
so  as  to  give  genuine  pleasure  to  one's  audience  goes  far 
toward  winning  and  holding  the  attention  and  respect  of 
the  school.  It  attracts  pupils  to  school  by  their  own  interest, 
overcomes  many  mischievous  tendencies  by  arousing  the 
nobler  natures  of  the  children;  affords  an  excellent  model 
of  good  reading  for  pupils  to  follow;  supplements  the  direct 
teaching  of  language  by  greatly  increasing  the  vocabulary 
of  the  pupils,  strengthening  their  power  to  choose  and  use 
effective  similes  and  other  forms  of  picturesque  speech; 
incidentally  imparts  much  valuable  knowledge;  helps  to 
develop  a  permanent  taste  for  good  literature,  and  supplies 
a  needed  change  and  relaxation  from  the  periods  devoted 
to  concentrated  effort. 


168  Public  School  Methods 

But  while  all  these  results  follow  the  telling  of  stories, 
the  chief  aim  should  be  to  expand  and  add  to  the  spiritual 
experiences  of  the  child.  Consider,  in  listening  to  a  good 
story  well  told,  how  open  is  the  child's  mind,  how  concen- 
trated his  attention,  and  how  free  and  intimate  is  the  rela- 
tion between  him  and  the  narrator.  Just  here  is  one  of  the 
important  "points  of  contact"  in  teaching — the  one  between 
the  listening  child  and  the  teacher — for  during  the  telling 
of  a  story  we  may  be  reasonably  sure  that  the  child  is  really 
listening  to  the  narrator,  who  becomes,  for  the  time,  a 
teacher,  whether  she  will  or  no. 

8.  Selection  of  Stories.  The  best  authorities  on  telling 
stories  to  children  agree  that  with  children  of  the  kinder- 
garten and  the  first  primary  grade,  the  stories  that  are  the 
greatest  favorites  are  those  which  are  full  of  action,  which 
contain  pictures  of  the  imagination,  made  of  simple  elements 
with  which  the  child  is  familiar,  and  which  have  a  certain 
amount  of  lepetition,  as  in  the  Three  Bears,  Little  Red  Riding- 
Hood  and  The  Pig  That  Wouldn't  Go  Home.  Stories  possess- 
ing these  characteristics  are  sure  to  find  a  hearty  welcome 
among  the  children,  who  listen  to  them  over  and  over  again 
without  any  seeming  lack  of  interest.  Stories  suitable  for 
telling  in  the  first  three  grades  may  be  considered  under 
the  following  classes: 

(a)  Fairy  Tales.  The  fairy  tale  easily  ranks  first  as 
possessing  the  characteristics  named  above,  and  also  because 
it  presents  simple  truths,  general  types  of  human  experi- 
ence and  plenty  of  interesting  action  to  stir  the  imagination. 
It  is  usually  simple,  direct  and  strong  in  style — qualities 
invaluable  in  tales  for  young  children. 

(b)  Nature  Stories.  Stories  about  animals  and  plants, 
which  are  scientifically  correct  and  not  sentimental,  are 
useful  to  awaken  sympathy  with  animals  and  also  with 
plant  life,  and  to  create  a  desire  to  study  the  animals  and 
plants  of  the  locality.  But  while  these  stories  are  valuable 
for  the  purpose  named,  a  word  of  caution  concerning  them 
is  necessary.     Because  of  the  extensive  demand  for  material 


'SOMEBODY  HAS  BEEN  SLEEPING  IN  MY  BED,  AND  HERE  SHE  IS! 
From  "The  Three  Beara'! 


Dramatization,  Story  Telling,  Games,  Songs  169 

for  nature  study,  there  have  been  placed  upon  the  market 
numerous  books  about  animals,  and  some  about  plants, 
which  will  not  stand  the  test  of  science.  The  writers  of 
tnese  stories  make  their  animals  too  intensely  human,  and 
too  often,  in  order  to  make  a  good  story,  attribute  to  them 
habits  and  characteristics  which  they  do  not  possess.  The 
use  of  such  stories  fills  the  children's  minds  with  erroneous 
ideas,  some  of  which  may  cling  to  them  through  life.  The 
teacher,  therefore,  should  be  sure  that  the  nature  stories 
used  are  scientifically  correct. 

(c)  Biographical  Tales.  Children  are  always  interested 
in  people,  particularly  other  children;  therefore,  stories  of 
the  boyhood  of  eminent  men  are  attractive,  provided  they 
are  kept  within  the  understanding  of  the  pupils.  Tales 
relating  to  simple  life,  like  those  of  the  patriarchs  of  Bible 
times,  of  Daniel  Boone,  and  Lincoln,  never  lose  their  charm. 
With  the  second  and  third  grades  these  tales  can  be  extended 
to  include  accounts  of  endurance,  bravery  and  adventure. 
Such  stories  make  the  historical  personages  live  again,  and 
are  among  the  best  means  of  strengthening  character  in  the 
children. 

(d)  History  Stories.  History  stories  differ  but  slightly 
from  biographical  tales.  Biography  deals  with  one  char- 
acter, while  the  history  story  may  deal  with  several  char- 
acters. Such  stories  as  pertain  to  the  life  of  the  Pilgrim 
fathers,  especially  those  which  tell  of  the  child  life  of  that 
period,  and  stories  of  primitive  life  in  other  parts  of  the 
world,  afford  excellent  means  of  interesting  the  pupils  and 
also  of  conveying  historical  facts.  Simple  stories  of  this 
nature  are  suitable  for  a  third  grade. 

(e)  Travel  and  Adventure.  Stories  of  travel  and 
adventure  occupy  about  the  same  position  as  history  stories, 
but  they  dwell  upon  a  different  class  of  facts.  They  give 
an  intimate  and  broadening  knowledge  of  other  lands,  the 
manners  and  customs  of  the  people,  and  the  products  of 
other  countries.  The  work  in  home  geography  should  lead 
up  to  these  stories  by  natural  and  easy  steps. 


170  Public  School  Methods 

9.  Qualities  of  a  Good  Story.  In  choosing  a  story  to 
tell,  ask  yourself  if  it  has,  or  if  you  can  give  it,  the  qualities 
mentioned  below: 

(a)  Action.  Is  something  happening  all  the  time? 
Does  the  story  move  forward,  continually,  not  by  -descrip- 
tions or  discussions,  but  by  events  occurring. 

(b)  Sequence.  Do  these  happenings  link  into  each  other 
in  a  strong  chain,  each  one  connected  with  and  depending 
upon  the  next  one? 

(c)  Distinctness.  Are  they  clear  pictures,  and,  even 
where  the  mysterious  is  suggested,  is  the  matter  familiar 
enough,  in  general,  to  make  distinct  impressions? 

(d)  Rhythm.  Is  there  the  rhythm  that  comes  from  the 
fascinating  repetition  of  points,  or  details,  as  in  The  House 
that  Jack  Built,  or  in  "  But,  grandmother,  what  large  eyes," 
etc.,  in  Little  Red  Riding- Hood? 

10.  How  to  Tell  Stories,  (a)  Know  Your  Story.  Study 
the  construction  of  it  so  you  may  be  sure  of  the  climax  and 
of  the  steps  leading  up  to  it.  Except  for  bits  which  are  to 
be  repeated  for  rhythm,  the  story  need  never  be  memorized, 
but  should  be  so  vivid  in  your  mind  that  you  cannot  but 
make  it  real  to  your  listeners. 

(b)  Enjoy  the  Story  Yourself.  However  childish  or 
trite,  do  not  be  grudging  in  your  own  enjoyment  of  it. 
Remember  how  you  seize  an  anecdote  that  is  told  with 
evident  relish  by  a  friend,  and  forget  a  better  one  told  per- 
functorily. 

(c)  Convey  Your  Tale.  See  the  situations  and  the 
people  as  you  talk,  and  "aim  your  mind"  with  quiet  force 
at  your  youthful  listeners,  and  they  will  get  your  story. 
Just  let  go  of  yourself,  and  you  will  surely  reach  your 
audience. 

(d)  Tell  the  Tale.  Directly,  step  by  step,  dramatically 
wherever  possible,  but  always  simply  and  without  much 
discussion  of  minor  points,  let  the  story  progress.  Consider 
that  you  are  telling,  not  discussing  or  acting  out  the  story; 
so  let  your  digressions  be  brief,  and  your  gestures  natural 


Dramatization,  Story  Telling,  Games,  Songs  171 

and  few.  Never  talk  down  to  "my  dear  little  children;" 
use  your  natural  voice  at  its  best ;  cultivate  a  pleasing  tone 
and  distinct  articulation. 

11,  Favorite  Stories  of  Children.  After  all  is  said  and 
done,  the  classic  fairy  and  folk  stories  are  the  favorites 
among  children.  With  very  young  children  The  Three  Bears, 
Little  Red  Riding-Hood,  and  The  Pig  That  Wouldn't  Go 
Home  are  perennial  favorites,  many  repetitions  of  which 
are  always  clamored  for. 

From  Grimm's  Fairy  Tales  (the  Riverside  edition  is  good), 
the  teacher  can  select  such  favorites  as  Snow  White  and 
Red  Rose,  Thumbling  and  Little  Snow  White.  Of  Andersen's 
Fairy  Tales,  The  Ugly  Duckling,  The  Fir  Tree  and  The  Flax 
seem  to  be  most  loved  by  the  children.  The  English,  Celtic 
and  Indian  Fairy  Tales  by  Joseph  Jacob,  Irish  Fairy  Tales 
by  Semus  McManus  and  Andrew  Lang's  Blue  Fairy  Book 
are  in  demand.  Aesop's  Fables  always  have  been  and  prob- 
ably always  will  be  the  best -liked  fables. 

Of  the  Greek  myths,  those  of  Midas,  Pandora,  Apollo, 
Proserpine,  myths  easily  adapted  from  Bulfinch's  Age  of 
Fable — and  the  Norse  tales  about  Iduna,  Lif,  Balder,  and 
especially  Thor,  adapted  from  Anderson's  Norse  Mythology, 
are  the  reigning  favorites.  Use  some  of  the  stories  you  used 
to  like;  try  to  tell  them  as  you  would  have  enjoyed  hearing 
them;  then  watch  the  result.  Whatever  may  be  true  of 
other  work  presented,  a  teacher  in  the  story  period  may 
enjoy  the  work  as  fully  as  the  children  do. 

12.  Some  Schoolroom  Uses  of  the  Story.  Telling  stories, 
though  a  joy  and  a  relaxation,  and  valuable  for  both,  is  not 
merely  nor  even  chiefly  for  relaxation.  If  it  were,  this  care- 
ful consideration  of  what  to  tell  and  how  to  tell  it  would  be 
superfluous.  In  addition  to  the  values  already  mentioned, 
story  telling  to  the  progressive  teacher  opens  various  avenues 
of  development.  The  most  important  ones  of  the  story  are 
as  follows: 

(a)  Expression.  The  story  affords  a  great  opportunity 
for  developing  the  power  of  self-expression  on  the  part  of 


172  Public  School  Methods 

the  children.  The  wise  teacher  expects  every  child  to  give 
back  something  of  every  story  told.  There  is  a  great  differ- 
ence in  the  kind  of  listening  when  the  child  knows  he  is  to 
make  some  use  of  the  story  he  hears.  His  enjoyment  is 
really  deeper  and  his  attention  is  more  nearly  continuous 
when  he  gets  into  the  habit  of  making  the  stories  "his  to 
use."  Selfishly  to  take  all  and  give  nothing  would  be  poor 
ethics,  indeed.  Here  is  one  of  the  places  to  teach  giving. 
(See  page  262,  Section  21,  Volume  Two.) 

The  oral  re-telling  for  pupils  who  were  absent,  to  chil- 
dren of  another  grade,  to  visitors,  or  for  the  social  class 
"continued  story,"  where  each  one  takes  up  the  thread  of 
the  narrative  where  the  last  one  left  off,  is  invaluable  train- 
ing in  oral  English,  in  good  habits  of  enunciation  and  expres- 
sion. Where  foreign  children  are  to  be  considered,  the 
advantages  are  even  greater,  as  the  imitation  of  words  and 
expressions  used  by  the  teacher-narrator  are  educative. 

(b)  Art.  After  the  story,  the  children,  for  seat  work, 
should  be  allowed  to  "give  back"  the  story  in  the  forms 
of  drawing,  paper  cutting  or  tearing,  and  the  like.  Not 
only  will  the  training  of  hand  and  eye  be  a  result,  but  the 
children  will  develop  the  genuine  power  which  comes  of 
first  imaging,  and  then  holding  the  image  and  expressing 
it  with  the  hands. 

(c)  Written  Work.  Written  expression  may  well  follow 
the  oral  story,  especially  if  there  is  a  real  motive  for  it — 
such  as  preserving  the  story,  taking  it  home,  or  writing  it 
for  the  individual  story  book  each  child  should  be  gradually 
making.  Such  written  exercises  should  be  brief.  Some- 
times only  one  section  of  the  story  should  be  written  at 
once,  the  work  being  continued  the  next  day. 

(d)  Dramatization.  Often  the  story  can  be  played, 
thus  furnishing  an  opportunity  for  the  development  of 
dramatic  instinct,  which  is  in  every  child,  no  matter  how 
unexpressive  (See  Dramatization,  Sections  1-6).  Let  the 
children  choose  their  parts,  often;  let  them  arrange  the 
simple  stage  setting,  as  a  chair;  encourage  them  to  manage 


Dramatization,  Story  Telling,  Games,  Songs  173 

their  play  alone,  and  not  to  look  to  the  teacher  to  help  it 
on.  Where  the  dramatization  is  weak,  help  by  asking,  "How 
did  the  giant  walk?"  and  expect  a  better  rendering;  do  not 
tell  how  the  thing  should  be  done.  Real  gain  to  the  pupils 
consists  in  making  conditions  favorable  for  them  to  express 
dramatically  the  story  as  they  understand  it,  not  as  you 
know  it.  Accept  crudity,  if  the  effort  is  real,  and  do  not 
work  for  a  finished  production  beyond  the  ability  of  the 
children  in  this  educative  activity,  any  more  than  you  would 
in  such  forms  of  expression  as  writing  or  drawing.  (See 
Dramatization,  Sections   1-6.) 

(e)  Power  of  Attention.  But  underlying  all  these 
uses  is  the  development  of  the  power  of  attention,  upon 
which  all  uses  of  the  story  must  depend.  The  child  learns 
to  listen  by  listening,  and  when  to  the  charm  of  the  story 
is  added  the  incentive  of  re-telling  it,  he  listens  with  all 
his  effort.  In  this  way  he  develops  the  power  of  attention, 
until  from  a  single  telling  he  is  able  to  reproduce  in  con- 
nected form  all  the  incidents  of  a  story  which  it  will  require 
several  minutes  to  tell.  This  power  he  applies  to  his  lessons 
in  other  branches,  and  masters  them  more  quickly  and 
more  thoroughly  because  of  what  he  gained  through  listen- 
ing to  the  stories. 

13.  Books  for  Teachers.  The  following  books  contain 
stories  suitable  for  children  of  the  first  three  grades.  Some 
of  them  need  to  be  adapted,  if  used  in  any  of  these  grades ; 
in  the  original  form  they  are  too  long  and  too  difficult.  The 
King  of  the  Golden  River,  The  Story  of  Patsy  and  Timothy's 
Quest  are  good  illustrations  of  stories  that  need  to  be  adapted 
to  the  grades. 

The  Golden  Windows.     Laura  E.  Richards.     Little,  Brown  &  Co. 

When  the  King  Came  (Stories  from  the  Four  Gospels).  George 
Hodges.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

Wonder  Stories  Told  for  Children.     Hans  Christian  Andersen. 

Mother  Goose's  Melodies.    W.  A.  Wheeler.    Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

Nursery  Rhyme  Book.     Andrew  Lang.     Warne  &  Co.,  London. 

The  Book  of  Nature  Myths.  Florence  Holbrook.  Riverside  Lit- 
erature Series      Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 


174  Public  School  Methods 

Nature  Myths  and  Stories.    Flora  J.  Cooke.    A.  Flanagan  Company. 

The  Story  Hour.  Story  of  Patsy.  The  Birds'  Christmas  Carol. 
Timothy's  Quest.     Kate  Douglas  Wiggin.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

English  Fairy  Tales.  More  English  Fairy  Tales.  Celtic  Fairy 
Tales.  More  Celtic  Fairy  Tales.  Indian  Fairy  Tales.  Joseph  Jacobs. 
G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons. 

The  Fables  of  Aesop.     Joseph  Jacobs.     Macmillan  &  Co. 

The  Blue  Fairy  Book.  The  Arabian  Nights'  Entertainments. 
Andrew  Lang.     Longmans,  Green  &  Co. 

The  Age  of  Fable.    Thomas  Bulfinch.    Lothrop,  Lee  &  Shepard  Co. 

Old  Greek  Folk  Stories.  Josephine  Preston  Peabody.  Riverside 
Literature  Series.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

The  Boys'  King  Arthur.     Sidney  Lanier.     Charles  Scribner's  Sons. 

Norse  Tales.     Hamilton  W.    Mabie.     Dodd,  Mead  &  Co. 

Nights  with  Uncle  Remus.  Joel  Chandler  Harris.  Houghton, 
Mifflin  &  Co. 

True  Bird  Stories.    Olive  Thome  Miller.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co, 

Among  the  Farmyard  People.  Clara  D.  Pierson.  E.  P.  Dutton 
&  Co. 

Wild  Animals  I  Have  Known.  Ernest  Thompson  Seton.  Charles 
Scribner's  Sons. 

Any  or  all  of  the  following  publications  may  be  obtained 
from  A.  C.  McClurg  &  Co.,  the  Book  Supply  Company,  the 
A.  Flanagan  Company,  of  Chicago,  or  any  other  large  book- 
store : 

Children  of  the  Palm  Lands.     Alice  E.  Allen. 

Fairy  Tales.     Hans  Christian  Andersen. 

Editha's  Burglar.  Little  Lord  Fauntleroy.  Sara  Crewe.  Francis 
Hodgson  Burnett. 

Jewel.     Clara  Louise  Burnham. 

At  the  Back  of  the  North  Wind.     George  MacDonald. 

Colonial  Children.     Mara  L.  Pratt. 

A  Dog  of  Flanders.  Findelkind.  Nurnberg  Stove.  The  Child  of 
Urbino.     The  Little  Earl.     Louise  de  la  Ramee  (Ouida). 

King  of  the  Golden  River.     John  Ruskin. 

Beautiful  Joe.     Marshall  Saunders. 

Children  of  the  Cold.     Frederick  Schwatka. 

Black  Beauty.     Anna  Sewell. 

The  Dead  Doll.     Margaret  Vandegrift. 

Bob  Cratchitt's  Christmas  in  Christmas  Stories,  Charles  Dickens; 
selections  from  Rebecca  of  Sunnybrook  Farm,  Kate  Douglas  Wiggin; 
selections  from  Mrs.  Wiggs  of  the  Cabbage  Patch  and  Lovey  Mary, 
Alice  Hegan  Rice,  are  also  full  of  interest  for  children. 


Dramatization,  Story  Telling,  Games,  Songs  175 

GAMES    AND    PLAYS 

14.  Purposes.  The  uses  to  which  a  teacher  puts  games 
and  plays  will  depend  in  a  great  measure  upon  her  concep- 
tion of  play  in  its  relation  to  the  development  of  the  child. 
The  study  of  this  problem  has  been  prosecuted  for  centuries, 
and  it  occupies  an  important  place  in  the  history  of  educa- 
tion. However,  for  a  time,  the  function  of  play  in  a  system 
of  education  was  nearly  lost  sight  of  in  the  United  States. 
In  recent  years  this  important  subject  has  again  attracted 
the  attention  of  educators,  and  play  is  now  given  more  prom- 
inence in  schools  than  ever  before.  Some  of  the  most  impor- 
tant purposes  for  which  it  is  used  are  the  following: 

(a)  Recreation.  The  first  thought  which  naturally  pre- 
sents itself  is  that  play  is  used  chiefly,  if  not  wholly,  for 
recreation,  and  in  the  schoolroom  many  games  are  used 
primarily  for  this  purpose — literally,  re-creation.  After  a 
period  of  close  application  to  study,  or  sitting  still,  often 
in  a  partially  cramped  position,  something  that  will  relieve 
the  tension,  hasten  the  sluggish  circulation,  give  the  lungs 
a  chance  to  expand  and  the  spirits  an  occasion  for  rising, 
is  really  needed.  For  this,  nothing  is  better  than  free  play 
directed  by  the  teacher.  Open  the  windows,  get  the  chil- 
dren out  of  their  seats,  and  for  three  or  five  minutes  let  them 
engage  in  some  interesting  game,  encouraging  a  genuine 
laugh  and  applause  for  the  winners,  and  you  accomplish 
much  towards  banishing  fatigue  and  putting  zest  into  another 
period  of  close,  earnest  work. 

(b)  General  Development.  During  the  period  of 
immaturity,  the  young  of  all  the  higher  animals  instinctively 
engage  in  play,  through  which  their  various  powers  are  given 
exercise.  In  the  lower  animals  play  is  wholly  instinctive, 
and  some  of  our  leading  authorities  consider  it  to  be  so  in 
man.  Their  theory  is  that  instinct  is  the  foundation  of 
habit,  and  that  when  any  habit  is  formed,  the  instinct  that 
gave  it  birth  disappears.  However,  because  of  the  progress 
of  the  race,  instinct  needs  to  be  supplemented  by  education. 
Says  Johnson: 


176  Public  School  Methods 

Now  from  the  time  that  man  first  began  consciously  to  instruct 
his  offspring,  there  have  been  these  two  factors  in  the  development 
of  the  individual  child — heredity  and  conscious  education.  Nature 
always  strives  to  conserve  the  needed  powers  of  the  child  and  bring 
to  fullness  every  promise  of  strength;  but  nature's  gifts  have  been 
greatly  improved  and  the  advance  of  the  race  greatly  aided  by  the 
addition  of  conscious  training.  Nature,  or  heredity,  and  conscious 
education  join  hands  in  bringing  man  to  his  best  and  fullest  develop- 
ment.1 

Prof.  William  James  also  emphasizes  the  relation  of 
instinct  to  play,  and  of  these  to  education,  as  seen  from 
the  following: 

Leaving  lower  animals  aside,  and  turning  to  human  instincts, 
we  see  the  law  of  transiency  corroborated  on  the  widest  scale  by 
the  alternation  of  different  interests  and  passions  as  human  life 
goes  on.  With  the  child,  life  is  all  play  and  fairy-tales  and  learn- 
ing the  external  properties  of  'things;"  with  the  youth,  it  is  bodily 
exercises  of  a  more  systematic  sort,  novels  of  the  real  world,  boon- 
fellowship  and  song,  friendship  and  love,  nature,  travel  and  adven- 
ture, science  and  philosophy;  with  the  man,  ambition  and  policy, 
acquisitiveness,  responsibility  to  others,  and  the  selfish  zest  of  the 
battle  of  life.  If  a  boy  grows  up  alone  at  the  age  of  games  and  sports, 
and  learns  neither  to  play  ball,  nor  row,  nor  sail,  nor  ride,  nor  skate, 
nor  fish,  nor  shoot,  probably  he  will  be  sedentary  to  the  end  of  his 
days;  and,  though  the  best  of  opportunities  be  afforded  him  for  learn- 
ing these  things  later,  it  is  a  hundred  to  one  but  he  will  pass  them 
by  and  shrink  back  from  the  effort  of  taking  those  necessary  first 
steps  the  prospect  of  which,  at  an  earlier  age,  would  have  filled  him 
with  eager  delight. 

In  the  normal  child  all  these  activities  are  begun  in  play, 
and  he  is  nowise  prepared  wholly  to  drop  this  stage  of  develop- 
ment when  he  enters  school. 

(c)  Individuality.  In  play,  the  spontaneous  activity 
of  the  child  is  ever  uppermost.  In  set  tasks  he  is  more  or 
less  under  the  influence  of  those  over  him,  but  in  free  play 
he  is  wholly  himself.  The  traits  peculiar  to  different  chil- 
dren thus  revealed  are  often  of  great  assistance  to  the  teacher 
in  guiding  her  in  the  development  of  each  child's  character. 
With   this   knowledge   at  hand,    the   teacher   can   assist   in 

1  George  Ellsworth  Johnson:     Education  by  Plays  and  Games. 


Dramatization,  Story  Telling,  Games,  Songs  177 

strengthening  those  traits  which  should  be  developed,  and 
in  subduing  passions  and  tendencies  that  should  disappear. 

15.  Relation  of  Play  to  Work.  Someone  has  said  that 
play  is  the  child's  work,  and  we  all  know  that  the  child 
works  hard  at  his  play.  Moreover,  most  of  the  child's  play 
is  imitation  of  the  work  going  on  around  him,  or  of  some 
phase  of  the  life  of  primitive  peoples,  as  Indians  or  Eskimos. 
From  any  viewpoint  the  relation  between  play  and  work 
is  found  to  be  very  close.  Children  often  love  to  work  as 
well  as  to  play,  and  the  teacher  should  so  use  this  love  of 
play  as  to  enable  it  to  contribute  to  the  work  of  the  school, 
not  by  making  work  play,  but  by  making  the  work  so  pleasant 
that  work  and  play  imperceptibly  blend  into  each  other. 
"To  sweeten  work  with  a  real  joy  in  the  doing  is  the  high 
art  of  the  genius  in  teaching." 

16.  Selecting  Plays  and  Games.  In  selecting  plays  and 
games,  the  teacher  should  give  due  consideration  to  out- 
door and  indoor  games,  also  to  their  adaptation  to  the  pupils. 
For  instance,  pupils  of  the  third  grade  will  not  enjoy  games 
suitable  for  those  of  the  first  grade,  because  they  have  out- 
grown them.  Some  pupils  of  the  second  grade  will  enjoy 
and  take  part  in  games  suitable  for  the  first  grade,  and 
others  will  be  attracted  to  those  of  the  third  grade,  but  all 
pupils  of  the  second  grade  will  enjoy  better  games  chosen 
with  a  view  to  their  special  needs.  Therefore,  the  teacher 
must  study  her  pupils  and  select  such  games  as  they  will 
most  enjoy.  Failure  to  do  this  will  prevent  securing  the 
most  desirable  results.  Another  restriction  frequently  placed 
upon  the  teacher  is  lack  of  apparatus.  In  most  schools 
games  must  be  chosen  which  require  no  apparatus,  except 
such  as  can  be  supplied  by  the  teacher  or  the  pupils,  such 
as  balls,  bean  bags,  hoops  and  rings. 

17.  Method  of  Procedure.  During  the  school  hours  the 
play  periods  should  be  brief  and  frequent.  Simple  games, 
in  which  all  the  pupils  can  engage,  and  that  require  no  prep- 
aration, should  therefore  be  selected  for  these  periods.  The 
pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  enter  into  the  play  heartily 


178  Public  School  Methods 

and  joyously.  This  does  not  mean  that  anyone  may  indulge 
in  roughness,  but  it  does  mean  that  all  right  sort  of  fun 
should  be  encouraged. 

In  most  of  the  following  games  the  children  stand  in  the 
aisles,  or  around  the  room.  If  the  exercise  does  not  include 
all  pupils  at  once,  let  the  others  beat  time,  where  needed, 
mark  bases,  or  keep  the  score.  Keep  the  children  feeling 
that  they  are  in  a  real  game,  and  encourage  not  horseplay 
but  fun. 

18.  Miscellaneous  Games.  (a)  Tiptoe  Catch.  Two 
children  are  chosen.  The  others  face  for  marching.  The 
leader  (or  teacher)  says  in  a  whisper,  "Sh!  Here  come  Tip- 
toe and  Catch,"  at  the  same  time  touching  the  two  chosen 
children.  Tiptoe  at  once  leads  the  line,  all  on  tiptoe,  about 
the  room,  in  time  (children  clapping  with  hands  above 
head),  first  walking,  then  running.  Catch  takes  out  of  the 
line  as  they  pass  her,  anyone  touching  the  whole  foot  to 
the  floor.  This  is  an  excellent  exercise  for  stretching  and 
resting  the  body,  and  is  a  good  corrective  after  much  sitting. 

(b)  Flying  Cloud.  Pupils  stand  in  two  lines  down  two 
aisles,  facing  each  other.  At  least  one  aisle  must  be  between 
them  in  which  the  "It,"  or  center  player,  stands.  A  hand- 
kerchief becomes  the  cloud  and  is  tossed  from  one  to  another 
across  the  aisle,  while  the  center  player  tries  to  catch  the 
cloud.    If  he  succeeds,  the  one  who  threw  last  becomes  "  It." 

(c)  Trade  Game.  A  group  of  children  step  out  and  decide 
secretly  what  trade  is  to  be  imitated.  Then  they  call,  "  Here 
we  come!"  The  rest  say,  "Where  from?"  They  answer, 
"New  York."  The  rest  ask,  "What  is  your  trade?"  Then 
they  carry  out  farming,  building,  etc.,  in  pantomime.  The 
one  who  guesses  may  choose  a  party  to  imitate  another 
trade.  This  game  has  dramatic  and  social  values,  besides 
the  values  of  a  good  game. 

(d)  Skip  Tag.  As  the  children  clap  and  sing,  one  child 
skips  up  and  down  the  aisle.  He  tags  a  child,  who  skips 
after  him,  trying  to  catch  him  before  he  skips  to  his  seat. 
If  he  succeeds,  the  first  child  tags  another;  if  he  does  not, 


Dramatization,  Story  Telling,  Games,  Songs  179 

the  second  child  tags  another,  and  so  on.     If  played  rapidly, 
this  is  a  great  favorite. 

19.  Marching  Games,  (a)  Presto,  Change.  Let  a  pupil 
rapidly  chalk  on  the  floor  in  the  aisles,  at  irregular  intervals, 
as  many  crosses,  less  one,  as  there  are  pupils.  During  the 
regular  marching  period  the  teacher  says,  "Presto,  change!" 
and  each  child  tries  to  change  his  place  so  as  to  occupy  a 
cross.  The  one  who  must  take  his  seat  first  erases  a 
cross.  This  gives  a  variation  to  the  regular  marching 
exercises. 

(b)  Follow  Your  Leader.  During  the  marching,  let 
the  leader  skip,  hop,  run,  clap  or  change  position  of  hands, 
and  let  the  others  follow.  If  the  changes  are  agreed  upon 
first,  as  walk  eight  counts,  skip  eight  counts,  clap  eight 
counts,  etc.,  the  effect  is  very  satisfactory. 

(c)  Marching  with  Wands.  Besides  the  many  simple 
wand  exercises,  children  may  march  with  wands  across 
shoulders  or  in  bayonet  position.  Children  should  be  encour- 
aged to  march  with  the  wand  balanced  on  the  hand  or  on 
the  forefinger  of  the  right  hand  for  a  short  distance. 

20.  Races,  (a)  Crow  Race.  All  children  stand.  Those 
in  front  stoop  and  clasp  their  hands  about  their  ankles. 
In  this  position  they  start  the  race  at  the  signal  and  may 
either  hop  or  walk  as  best  they  can.  Anyone  removing  the 
hands  from  the  ankles  must  take  his  seat.  They  hop  to  the 
front  wall  and  back  to  their  seats,  seating  themselves  to 
make  room  for  the  next  row  across  the  room.  The  teacher 
declares  who  has  beaten  in  each  set,  and  the  children  applaud. 
The  laughing  in  this  game  brings  new  life  and  vigor  to  all 
parts  of  the  body. 

(b)  Eraser  Race.  With  crayon  draw  a  circle  in  front 
and  at  the  back  of  the  room  in  each  aisle.  Place  the  same 
number  of  erasers  in  each  circle  at  the  front.  Beginning 
at  the  back,  let  the  children  in  each  back  seat  walk,  or  run, 
as  determined,  to  the  front,  take  an  eraser,  place  it  in  the 
circle  at  the  back,  get  another  and  continue  until  all  have 
been  taken.     In  like  manner  return  them  to  the  front  circle. 


180  Public  School  Methods 

Let  the  room  applaud  the  winner,  and  let  the  children  in 
next  to  the  back  seats  have  their  turn,  continuing  in  the 
same  way  until  every  one  in  the  room  has  had  a  chance. 
Occasionally  let  the  winners  of  each  set  try  at  the  end  for 
the  championship. 

(c)  Relay  Eraser  Race.  Let  the  pupils  stand  in  two 
lines  (or  more)  down  two  aisles,  with  the  same  number  in 
each  line,  and  facing  the  front.  Arms  are  raised  above  heads ; 
no  one  turns  about.  At  the  word  "Go!"  the  head  pupil 
in  each  line  passes  an  eraser  to  the  one  behind  him,  who 
does  the  same.  When  the  eraser  for  each  line  reaches  the 
last  one,  he  starts  it  back  again.  The  line  in  which  the 
eraser  reaches  the  front  first  tells  the  fact  by  clapping. 
Each  child  must  pass  the  eraser;  failure  to  do  so  loses  the 
game  for  the  side.  This  game  is  particularly  good  for  rapid 
work,  for  team  work  and  for  enthusiastic  efforts  to  help 
those  working  for  the  same  end. 

(d)  Relay  Touch  Race.  A  chalk  line  is  drawn  across 
the  front  of  the  room.  At  the  signal  "Go!"  the  pupils  in 
the  front  seats  run  to  the  front,  stoop,  touch  the  line,  run 
to  the  back  wall,  touch  it,  then  run  back  to  their  seats,  which 
they  raise  so  they  may  stand  behind  their  desks,  out  of 
the  way  of  the  children  directly  behind  them,  who  instantly 
dart  out  and  race.  The  row  that  finishes  first  is  the  vic- 
torious one. 

21.  Rhythm  Games.  (a)  Balls.  While  most  of  the 
room  clap  double,  three  beat  measure,  etc.,  a  few  in  front 
bounce  and  toss  balls  in  the  following  order.  Upon  drop- 
ping a  ball  it  must  be  given  to  someone  else,  who  comes  to 
the  front  and  joins  in  the  work. 

(i)  Bounce  down  with  both  hands  through  the  tunc 
that  all  are  humming  or  singing  to  la,  with  clapping  in 
accented  rhythm. 

(2)  Bounce  down  and  catch  with  right  hand. 

(3)  Bounce  down  and  catch  with  left  hand. 

(4)  Throw  up  and  catch  with  both  hands;  then  right 
hand;  then  left  hand. 


Dramatization,  Story  Telling,  Games,  Songs  181 

(5)  Bounce  down,  then  throw  up  and  catch  with  both 
hands,  then  right  hand,  then  left  hand. 

This  work  has  excellent  results  in  rhythm,  poise  and 
control. 

(b)  Rhythm  with  Wands.  Children  stand.  Using  the 
same  tunes  and  rhythm,  beat  time  with  the  wands,  softly 
touching  the  desk  on  accented  beat,  and  bending  the 
body  rhythmically. 

(c)  Desk  as  Apparatus,  (i)  Jumping  Jack.  Lift  the 
seats.  Place  the  right  hand  on  the  front  of  the  desk,  and 
the  left  on  the  upright  of  the  desk  behind.  At  a  signal, 
jump  through  the  space  into  the  other  aisle.  Turn.  At 
a  given  signal,   jump  back. 

Try  this  without  lifting  the  seat.    Jump  over  the  seat. 
(2)  River  Row.     Sit  on  the  desk,  with  feet  on  the  seat. 
On  certain  counts  give  rowing  exercises  together. 

22.  Ball  and  Bean  Bag  Games,  (a)  Toss  and  Catch. 
(1)  Pupils  stand  around  the  outside  of  the  room,  or  nearer, 
if  the  room  is  large,  in  an  irregular,  large  circle.  "It"  in 
the  center  throws  the  ball  or  the  bean  bag,  calling  the  name 
of  the  person  to  whom  he  is  throwing  it,  if  that  is  agreed 
upon.     If  the  person  fails  to  catch  the  ball,  he  is  "It." 

(2)  The  ball  or  bean  bag  may  be  thrown  across  the 
circle.  If  the  one  in  the  circle  succeeds  in  catching  it,  the 
one  who  threw  the  ball  takes  his  place. 

(b)  Bag  in  the  Square.  Mark  squares  on  the  floor  in 
a  line.  The  players  are  to  take  turns  in  throwing  the  bags 
into  the  squares,  standing  at  least  five  feet  away  from  the 
first  square.  If  a  bag  falls  on  a  line,  it  is  a  foui;  if  in  a 
square,  it  counts  as  many  points  as  the  number  marked 
in  the  square.    The  class  may  be  divided  into  sides,  if  desired. 

23.  Games  for  Training  the  Powers  of  Observation.  Many 
simple  exercises  in  the  form  of  games  can  be  used  for 
developing  keenness  in  observation.  These  games  are  valu- 
able during  rest  periods  and  at  the  long  recess  on  days  when 
the  weather  is  such  that  the  children  cannot  play  out  of 
doors.     The  teacher  should  take  just  enough  part  in  the 


182  Public  School  Methods 

games  to  see  that  they  are  started  right  and  that  no  pupil 
directs  more  than  his  share  of  the  time. 

(a)  Sharp  Eyes  Games.  These  games  have  for  their 
purpose  the  training  of  the  sense  of  sight. 

(i)  Have  the  pupils  select  a  leader,  who  will  place  three 
or  four  simple,  unlike  objects  on  a  desk  or  table,  and  ask 
the  class  to  observe  them  for  an  instant;  then  to  turn  away 
or  cover  their  eyes.  The  leader  then  rearranges  the  objects 
quickly  and  quietly  asks  the  children  to  look  at  them  again, 
and  calls  upon  someone  to  reproduce  the  first  arrangement. 
If  the  child  makes  an  error,  it  will  be  noticed  by  someone 
in  the  group.  This  exercise  can  be  increased  in  difficulty 
by  increasing  the  number  of  objects,  but  with  children 
below  the  fourth  grade  the  number  should  never  exceed 
ten. 

(2)  Let  the  children  select  a  leader,  who  performs  a 
number  of  dissociated  acts  while  the  children  observe.  The 
leader  then  calls  on  someone  from  the  group  to  reproduce 
the  acts  in  the  same  order  and  in  the  same  manner.  Should 
he  make  a  mistake,  the  children  will  criticise  and  correct 
him.  Like  (1),  this  exercise  can  be  varied  by  increasing 
the  number  of  acts  in  the  series. 

(3)  The  children  cover  their  eyes,  or  turn  their  faces 
away,  while  the  leader  places  a  number  of  unlike  objects 
upon  a  table  or  desk.  The  children  then  observe  the  arrange- 
ment for  about  a  minute,  then  the  leader  covers  the  objects 
and  asks  the  children  to  write  upon  tablets  the  names  of  all 
the  objects  on  the  desk.    The  one  who  makes  no  error  wins. 

(4)  This  is  similar  to  (3)  with  the  exception  that  colors 
are  observed  instead  of  objects,  and  the  children  write  the 
names  of  the  colors. 

(5)  A  similar  game  can  be  played  by  the  use  of  pictures 
of  animals  cut  from  posters,  magazines,  old  readers  and 
other  books  from  which  they  can  be  obtained.  The  pictures 
should  be  simple,  and  the  objects  in  them  large  enough  to 
be  readily  seen.  For  convenience  in  handling  they  should 
be  placed  upon  pieces  of  cardboard  of  the  same  size. 


Dramatization,  Storij  Telling,  Games,  Songs  183 

(6)  This  serves  as  a  spelling  game.  The  children  turn 
their  backs,  or  cover  their  eyes,  while  the  leader  writes  on 
the  blackboard  a  number  of  words.  He  allows  the  children 
to  look  at  the  board  for  a  moment,  then  erases  one  word 
and  asks  them  to  tell  what  it  was.  The  game  can  be  varied 
by  the  leader  erasing  all  the  words  and  having  the  children 
reproduce  them  either  orally  or  in  writing. 

(7)  In  this  game  the  children  arrange  themselves  in  a 
ring.  The  leader  asks  them  to  close  their  eyes,  then  removes 
one  child  from  the  ring  and  places  him  out  of  sight.  Those 
remaining  in  the  ring  open  their  eyes  and  tell  instantly  who 
is  missing.    See  Songs,  The  Butterflies  Hide  and  Seek,  page  198. 

(8)  If  the  school  is  provided  with  a  collection  of  flags 
for  different  nations,  the  teacher  or  one  of  the  children 
acting  as  a  leader,  can  ask  the  others  to  observe  the  posi- 
tion of  each  flag.  Then,  when  their  eyes  are  closed,  one  of 
the  flags  is  removed  and  the  children  are  asked  to  name 
the  one  taken  away.  This  exercise  can  be  used  with  the 
entire  school.  If  the  school  is  not  provided  with  flags, 
pictures  large  enough  to  be  seen  across  the  100m  can  be 
used  in  the  same  way. 

(9)  This  game  is  particularly  interesting  to  girls.  The 
teacher,  or  leader  selected,  holds  a  doll  before  the  group  of 
children  for  a  moment,  then  covers  it,  or  removes  it  from 
sight,  and  asks  those  who  observed  it  to  describe  its  cloth- 
ing, its  eyes,  and  every  particular.  A  similar  game  can  be 
played  by  using  a  large  picture  in  which  the  various  objects 
and  parts  are  distinctly  brought  out.  If  the  picture  is 
colored,  it  adds  value  and  interest  to  the  game. 

(10)  Select  a  leader,  who  directs  different  children  in 
the  group  to  represent  various  acts  in  pantomime,  and  then 
let  the  children  tell  what  is  represented;  as,  "Anna  is  clean- 
ing house;"  "John  is  driving  a  nail;"  "Frank  is  flying  a 
kite;"  "Susie  is  washing,"  etc.  This  game  is  very  interest- 
ing and  mirth-provoking;  it  also  enables  the  children  to 
become  expert  in  dramatizing  various  acts,  and  assists  m 
dramatization  in  reading  and  other  branches. 


184  Public  School  Methods 

(b)  Sharp  Ears  Games.  These  games  consist  in  train- 
ing the  sense  of  hearing.  They  are  rather  more  difficult 
than  the  Sharp  Eyes  Games,  and  not  quite  so  interesting; 
therefore  they  should  not  be  attempted  as  often  or  pro- 
longed to  any  great  extent. 

(i)  Let  the  children  name  a  leader,  then  when  their  eyes 
are  closed  the  leader  strikes  various  objects,  as  a  number 
of  bells,  provided  they  are  obtainable,  and  the  children  tell 
by  the  sound  which  object  is  struck.  The  game  can  be 
varied  by  having  the  children  listen  at  different  distances, 
by  striking  various  kinds  of  objects.  This  game  requires 
very  close  attention  and  its  success  depends  largely  upon 
the  skill  and  silence  of  the  leader. 

(2)  Divide  the  children  into  two  groups  and  place  these 
groups  across  the  room  from  each  other.  While  those  in 
one  group  close  their  eyes,  the  leader  indicates  a  child  in 
the  other  group  to  sing,  or  speak,  or  read.  The  children  in 
the  group  whose  eyes  are  closed  tell  which  child  performed 
the  act.  Let  the  other  side  close  their  eyes  and  a  child  from 
the  opposite  side  perform  a  similar  act.  If  the  leader  keeps 
tally,  to  see  which  side  is  the  more  accurate,  this  lends  spirit 
and  interest  to  the  game. 

(3)  If  there  is  a  piano  or  other  musical  instrument  in 
the  room,  this  game  is  particularly  valuable  on  dull  days. 
The  teacher,  or  some  pupil,  plays  a  marching  tune,  while 
one  or  more  of  the  children  follow  the  movement.  The  tune 
can  be  changed  from  a  marching  to  a  skipping  tune,  and 
from  that  to  songs.  In  each  case  the  children  selected  follow 
the  music  in  acting  or  singing. 

(4)  Choose  a  leader  and  have  all  the  children  close  their 
eyes.  The  leader  then  selects  a  number  of  children  and 
places  them  in  different  parts  of  the  room.  Each  child  so 
placed  asks,  in  turn,  "Where  am  I?"  The  leader  calls  on 
some  child  to  name  the  location  without  uncovering  his 
eyes.  This  game  is  a  good  test  of  the  children's  ability  to 
locate  the  source  from  which  sound  comes. 

(5)  This  game  is  somewhat  similar  to  (4).     The  children 


Dramatization,  Story  Telling,  Games,  So?igs  185 

close  their  eyes  and  the  leader  calls  four  or  five  in  front  of 
the  group  and  asks  each  one  to  laugh,  or  sing,  or  speak, 
or  make  some  other  sound.  With  their  eyes  still  closed, 
the  children  tell  what  each  child  did;  as,  "Nellie  sang;" 
"Frank  laughed;"  "Charlie  barked  like  a  dog,"  etc. 

(c)  Sensitive  Fingers  Games.  These  games  test  the 
delicacy  of  the  sense  of  touch  and  also  increase  the  power 
of  discrimination  through  this  sense. 

(i)  The  teacher  acts  as  a  leader;  she  places  a  number 
of  objects  of  the  same  kind  in  the  hands  of  children  whose 
eyes  are  closed,  then  asks  each  child  to  tell  how  many  he 
holds.  Afterwards  he  verifies  the  number  with  open  eyes. 
This  game  is  susceptible  of  various  modifications.  Objects 
of  different  shapes  can  be  used,  and  the  children  asked  to 
tell  the  shapes  from  feeling  them.  The  number  can  also 
be  varied,  but  with  children  in  first  and  second  grade  the 
number  should  not  exceed  five  until  they  attain  ability  to 
recognize  this  number  instantly. 

(2)  Select  a  leader,  who  divides  the  children  into  two 
equal  groups.  The  children  then  close  their  eyes,  and  the 
leader  presents  a  child  to  each  group.  He  then  calls  upon 
someone  from  each  group  to  determine  by  the  sense  of  touch 
alone  what  child  is  presented.  Objects  can  be  used  in  the 
place  of  children  if  it  is  so  desired. 

(3)  This  game  can  be  used  with  success  in  the  third 
grade.  The  teacher  should  act  as  a  leader,  and  she  should 
prepare  for  it  by  selecting  a  number  of  objects  of  different 
kinds,  as  iron,  glass,  wood,  etc.  She  should  ask  the  chil- 
dren to  close  their  eyes,  and  then  place  an  object  in  the 
hands  of  each  child,  who,  with  eyes  closed,  tells  of  what 
material  the  object  is  made.  A  more  delicate  test  can  be 
made  by  using  fabrics,  such  as  silk,  cotton,  linen  and  wool, 
in  place  of  the  objects  referred  to  above. 

(4)  The  leader  asks  the  children  to  close  their  eyes;  then 
she  may  place  rapidly  one  or  more  objects  upon  each  desk. 
With  eyes  closed,  each  child  quickly  examines  and  tells 
what  object  has  been  placed  before  him,  saying,  "I  have  a 


186  Public  School  Methods 

sphere ; "  "I  have  a  cup ; "  "I  have  a  ball ; "  "I  have  a  tablet," 
etc.  The  children  then  verify  their  statements  with  open 
eyes.  By  dividing  the  school  into  two  groups,  and  keeping 
tally,  this  game  becomes  a  contest  which  is  often  spirited 
and  interesting.  Since  it  requires  the  closest  attention  on 
the  part  of  the  children,  it  should  not  be  continued  for  more 
than  seven  or  eight  minutes. 

(5)  The  teacher,  or  some  pupil  selected,  places  a  number 
of  blocks  of  different  shapes  upon  a  table  or  box.  These 
are  then  covered  with  a  cloth  and  brought  into  the  room. 
The  children  close  their  eyes,  and  the  leader  selects  one 
child  to  determine  the  different  objects  on  the  table  by 
feeling  of  them.  The  remaining  children  watch  the  one 
at  work  and  correct  any  mistakes  that  he  makes. 

(6)  The  children  select  a  leader,  who  proceeds  to  blind- 
fold one  of  the  number  and  place  a  doll  in  her  hands,  asking 
her  to  give  a  complete  description  from  touch,  stating  the 
material  from  which  the  doll  is  made  and  the  material  of 
the  dress,  etc.  With  the  older  children  quite  a  minute 
description  can  be  obtained.  This  exercise  can  be  varied 
by  using  different  objects.  In  each  case,  however,  the  object 
should  be  large  enough  and  complex  enough  to  give  a  reason- 
able test. 

24.  Other  Common  Games.  The  original  teacher  may 
easily  adapt  such  games  as  "Twirl  the  Platter,"  "Jacob 
and  Rachel"  and  "Blind  Man's  Buff"  to  schoolroom  uses, 
and  the  rainy  recess  may  become  a  pleasure  instead  of  a 
bugbear.  She  should  encourage  games  such  as  "  Fox  and 
Chickens,"  "Pussy  Wants  a  Corner,"  "Stoop  Tag,"  "Cross 
Tag,"  "Hen  and  Chickens,"  etc.,  on  the  school  grounds. 
Children  playing  happily  have  no  time  for  mischief  or  gossip. 

25.  Books  for  the  Teacher.  Rules  for  Games  (No.  189,  Spaldings' 
Athletic  Library,  ten  cent  edition);  Indoor  and  Outdoor  Gymnastic 
Games  (No.   158  Spalding's  Athletic  Library). 

One  Hundred  and  Fifty  Gymnastic  Games.  Boston  Normal 
School  of  Gymnastics,  Boston,  Mass. 

Physical  Games  for  Public  Schools.  Anton  Leibold.  May  be 
obtained  from  the  author,  Columbus,   Ohio. 


Dramatization,  Story  Telling,  Games,  Songs  187 

Education  by  Plays  and  Games.  George  Ellsworth  Johnson. 
Ginn  &  Co. 

Games,  Seat  Work  and  Sense  Training  Exercises.  Holton.  A. 
Flanagan  Company. 

SONGS 

26.  Value.  The  song  taught  by  imitation — the  rote 
song — is  the  basis  of  the  child's  education  in  music.  By 
this  means  the  first  musical  sense  is  aroused.  The  child 
learns  to  hear  tones  and  to  imitate  tones  in  melody.  The 
songs  not  only  arouse  the  musical  sense,  but,  if  properly 
selected  and  presented,  they  will  quicken  all  the  sensibilities 
and  make  the  pupil  a  keener  and  more  appreciative  observer 
of  all  things.  For  systematic  instructions  in  methods  in 
music,  see  that  subject,  in  Volume  Two. 

Songs  for  children  should  be  suitable  in  subject  and  senti- 
ment and  simple  in  form.  The  songs  which  they  love  are 
those  which  appeal  to  their  experience  or  to  their  imagina- 
tion and  fancy.  It  is  not  enough  that  the  subject  be  suit- 
able; the  entire  spirit  of  the  poem  must  be  childlike  and 
must  be  written  from  the  child's  standpoint. 

27.  Classification.  An  exhaustive  classification  of  songs 
is  not  possible,  but  in  general  they  may  be  grouped  as  follows : 

(i)  Nature  songs,  including  songs  of  the  seasons,  of 
flowers,  of  birds,  of  wind,  of  rain,  of  snow. 

(2)  Songs  for  special  days,  such  as  Christmas,  Thanks- 
giving, Washington's  Birthday,  etc. 

(3)  Songs  of  industries  and  occupations,  as  songs  of  the 
farmer  the  miner,  the  blacksmith,  the  sailor,  the  shoemaker. 

(4)  Lullabies. 

(5)  Marching  songs. 

(6)  Games  and  motion  songs,  including  all  songs  which 
can  be  dramatized,  and  therefore  including  many  of  the 
occupation  songs. 

(7)  Nonsense  jingles,  to  be  particularly  commended  as 
cultivating  a  sense  of  humor. 

28.  Dramatization.  When  the  pupils  perform  the  actions 
described  in  the  poem,  we  call  it  dramatizing.     All  singing 


188  Public  School  Methods 

games  would  come  under  this  head,  and  many  songs  not 
originally  written  for  motions  very  naturally  lend  them- 
selves to  this  treatment.  A  revival  of  singing  games  would 
do  much  to  simplify  the  discipline  of  the  playground  and 
add  to  the  pleasure  of  the  play  hour. 

The  dramatization  of  other  songs,  while  it  makes  pretty 
exercises  and  is  very  enjoyable,  is  something  which  can 
easily  be  carried  too  far  and  thus  cease  to  be  of  any  value 
in  teaching  music.     See  Dramatization,  page  163. 

From  the  music  standpoint,  the  songs  must  be  simple 
in  form,  not  too  long,  and,  where  there  is  no  instrument, 
complete  without  accompaniment.  A  rhythmical  move- 
ment with  marked  accent  appeals  strongly  to  children  and 
is  of  great  value  in  cultivating  a  sense  of  rhythm.  Care 
must  be  taken  that  the  voice  range  is  correct  for  children's 
voices.  Remember  there  is  always  a  danger  of  having  chil- 
dren sing  too  low  and  almost  no  danger  of  asking  them  to 
sing  too  high. 

29.  How  to  Teach  the  Song.  The  directions  for  teach- 
ing a  rote  song  as  given  in  Volume  Two,  in  the  lesson  on 
Music,  are  quite  sufficient.  Sing  the  song  as  a  whole  several 
times,  then  phrase  by  phrase,  having  the  pupils  imitate 
each  phrase  until  the  entire  song  is  memorized. 

30.  How  to  Phrase  the  Song.  In  the  phrasing  of  a  song, 
the  same  rules  apply  as  in  the  reading  of  the  poem.  Make 
the  children  understand  what  the  poem  means,  and  express 
this  meaning  as  nearly  as  possible  in  their  singing.  If  this 
rule  is  followed,  there  is  no  necessity  for  any  other. 

A  few  of  the  simplest  rules,  however,  are  the  following: 

(1)  Do  not  breathe  in  the  middle  of  a  word. 

(2)  Do  not  breathe  between  a  preposition  and  its 
object. 

(3)  Do  not  breathe  between  a  verb  and  its  complement. 

(4)  Dwell  on  the  vowel  sounds  of  words  rather  than  on 
the  consonant,  but  speak  the  consonant  distinctly. 

(5)  Be  very  careful  in  the  pronunciation  of  the  words, 
and  remember  that  the  before  a  word  beginning  with  a  vowel 


Dramatization,  Story  Telling,  Games,  Songs  189 

is  pronounced  th<?.     Before  a  word  beginning  with  a  con- 
sonant, it  is  pronounced  thw. 

If  these  few  simple  rules  are  kept  in  mind,  and  the  general 
rule  for  phrasing  followed,  the  song  will  be  rendered  in  a 
very  satisfactory  manner. 

31.  Interpretation.  Too  much  cannot  be  said  about 
correct  interpretation  of  the  song.  No  matter  how  simple 
it  is,  make  it  artistic.  Study  the  words  and  find  out  what 
they  mean.  Sing  the  song  as  you  would  declaim  the  poem, 
with  all  the  dramatic  expression  of  which  you  are  capable 
and  for  which  the  poem  calls.  Do  not  overdo  the  dramatic. 
Remember  if  the  poem  embodies  a  simple  sentiment,  then 
its  expression  must  be  simple. 

32.  Songs.  The  following  have  been  selected  to  illus- 
trate the  different  classes  of  songs: 


SCALE   SONGS 

THE  FOUNTAIN 
From  Eleanor  Smith  Music  Course,  Book  I 


F=j=? 


m 


wm 


-a- 


Foun  -  tain,    spring  -  ing      high     in    sum  -  mer       air, 


II 


H- 


3=1 


Drow    -   sy         sweet      you         tin  -  kle,     tin  -  kle       clear. 


COASTING 

From  Eleanor  Smith  Music  Course,  Book  I 


3^ 


& 


4     a) — \-& 


:£ 


Slow  -    ly         up       the       hiU       we     climh     But    down  we'll 


m^ 


^ 


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coast  in  half  the  time;  Yes,  down  we'll  coast  in  half  the  time. 


190 


Public  School  Methods 


UP  THE  LADDER 
From  Eleanor  Smith  Music  Course,  Book  I 


Helen  Goodrich 


^m 


3=2=* 


^g^3 


Now,  up  the  lad  -  der    we  mer  -  ri  -  ly     go,     You  need  not 


0    I    r-1  •    I    p      p m—\-P      P  ~J 


S&fcE 


0         0 


hur  -  ry,  but  don't  be    too    slow.    Now  we're  de  -  scend-ing,  one 


& 


0       0        0 


mf 


*    * 


step  at    a    time;  Keep  on  the  lad -der    as  down-ward  we  climb. 


OCCUPATION  SONGS 

LITTLE  FARMERS 

(Action-Song) 

From  Eleanor  Smith  Music  Course,  Book  I 


French  Game 

n 

French  Folk-song 

V  i    r      i             T 

/\  b  " 

• 

*         j 

1              ^ 

frrv  a     J 

a 

r 

/ 

# 

J 

VMJ     n     * 

•  •                    #'                i1 

«J 

1.  Would  you  see 

2.  Would  you  see 

3.  Would  you  see 

4.  Would  you  see 


us  plow  our  land,  plow  our 

us  sow  our  seed,         sow  our 

us  cut  our  grain,        cut  our 

us  thresh  our  grain,  thresh  our 


-Jh 1 — h— 1 — --? — I — f — $- 

■^—^ — J — J — ^ — J — d rL— 

land,  plow  our  land?  This  is  how  we  plow  our 

seed,       sow  our  seed?  This  is  how  we  sow  our 

grain,      cut  our  grain?  This  is  how  we       cut  our 

grain,  thresh  our  grain?  This  is  how  we  thresh  our 


1 


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land,  In  the  ear    -      ly       days  of 

seed,  As  the  grain        a  -    broad  we 

grain,  Hear  our  sound  -  ing       sick    -  les        ring 

grain,  While  the  mer    -     ry    thresh  -  ers        sing. 


spring, 
fling, 
r 


Dramatization,  Story  Telling,  Games,  Songs  191 


THE  THRESHERS 
From  Eleanor  Smith  Music  Course.  Book  I 
Translated  from  the  German  Old  German  Threshing  Song 

Ben  murcato. 


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1.  Wake,  sleep  -  y  thresh-ers,    for  morn-ing    is  here,  Long  since  the 

2.  Back -wards  and  for-wards  with  flails  keep-ing  time,  Thresh-ers,  let's 


mi 


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clock  has  struck  three; 
mer  -  ri   -   ly       go; 

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Cocks  are      a  -  crow  -  ing    and 
Joy  -  ous  -  ly     sing  -  ing     our 


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bells  chim  -  ing    clear,  Winds  of  the  dawn  blow-ing  free, 
work  -  a  -  day  rhyme,  Rain  -  ing  good  blow  up  -  on     blow, 


192 


Public  ScJiool  Methods 


THE  THRESHERS 


^ 


^ 


Good  neigh-bor  Ad  -  am    is       bus  -  y      a-  gain;    Hear    how    he's 
Till    the  gold  hearts  of  our    own  yel  -  low  grain      Lie      for     our 


£ 


£ 


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thresh-ing  his  oats  and  his  grain !     Clip,  clap,  clap,  clip,  clap,  clap, 
glean -ing,  all  sweet  and  all  clean.     Clip,  clap,  clap,  clip,  clap,  clap, 


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clip,  clap,  clap,  clip,  clap,  clap,  Working  with  might  and  with  main. 
clip,  clap,  clap,  clip,  clap,  clap,  Work  then.with  might  and  with  main. 


J   J   j   J    J  1^ 


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Dramatization,  Stonj  Telling,  Games,  Songs  193 


LULLABIES 

BABY  DEAR 
Copyright  by  Jessie  L.  Gaynor 


Simply,  like  a  folk-song. 


From  "Lilts  and  Lyrics" 


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1.  Ba  -  by  dear,   ba-by  dear,  don't  you      cry!  Moth-er  will 

2.  Brother    is    driv-ing  the     cat  -  tie  home  From  the  up    -    land 


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come  to    you,      by      and      by;  Fa-ther  is      cut -ting  the 

pas    -    ture,  where  they  roam.        Ba  -  by  dear,  ba  -  by  dear, 


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hay    and  wheat,  Moth-er    is     bak-ing    a     cake     to      eat. 
don't  you      cry!      Sup-per-time's  com   -  ing     by      and     by. 


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194 


Public  School  Methods 


INDIAN  LULLABY 
From  Melodic  First  Reader 


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Dreamily. 


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Walter  H.  Aiken 


£: 


1.  Rock  -  a  -  bye,     my 

2.  Hush  -  a  -  bye,     my 

3.  Sleep,  0   sleep,    my 


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lit  -  tie  owl  -  et,  In  thy  moss  -  y,  sway  -  ing  nest, 
lit  -  tie  owl  -  et,  Man-  y  voi  -  ces  sing  to  thee; 
lit  -  tie  owl  -  et,     Thro'  our  tent    the  moon  shines  bright, 


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With  thy  lit  -  tie  wood-land  broth -ers,  Close  thine  eyes  and 
"Hush  -  a  -  bye,"  the  wa  -  ter  whis  -  pers,"Hush ! "  re  -plies  the 
Like      a  great   eye      it    will  watch  thee;  Sleep  till  comes  the 


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Dramatization,  Story  Telling,  Games,  Songs  195 

INDIAN  LULLABY 


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take  thy  rest. 

tall  pine-tree.      To  whoo, 

morn-ing  light. 


to  whoo, 


to 


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IS! 


Sgf  f  frttfU 


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t.  * 


THE  DREAM  PEDDLER. 

From  Melodic  First  Reader 
Lucy  M.  Blinn 

Moderately  and  xoith  soft,  distinct  tone. 


1.  Up  the  streets  of  slum-ber-town  Comes  the  cri  -  er  with  his  bell, 

2.  Here  are  dreams  of  fan-cies  bright,  Fair  ies  know,  but  will  not  tell; 

Slower  to  Vie  end. 


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1 


Call-  ingsoft-ly    up  and  down,  "Dreams  to  sell!   Dreams  to  sell!" 
Some  of  day,  and  some  of  night,  Dreams  to  sell!  Dreams  to  sell! 


196 


Public  School  Methods 


THE  FARMER  IN  THE  DELL 
From  "Lilts  and  Lyrics" 


Old  Folk  Game  and  Song 


3  The  wife  takes  a  child,    The  wife  takes  a  child, 
Heigh-o!  the  dairy-o!     The  wife  takes  a  child. 

4  The  child  takes  a  nurse,     The  child  takes  a  nurse, 
Heigh-o!  the  dairy-o!     The  child  takes  a  nurse. 

5  The  nurse  takes  a  dog,    The  nurse  takes  a  dog, 
Heigh-o!  the  dairy-o!    The  nurse  takes  a  dog. 

6  The  dog  takes  a  cat,    The  dog  takes  a  cat, 
Heigh-o!  the  dairy-o!     The  dog  takes  a  cat. 

7  The  cat  takes  a  mouse,    The  cat  takes  a  mouse, 
Heigh-o!  the  dairy-o!    The  cat  takes  a  mouse. 

8  The  mouse  takes  the  cheese,    The  mouse  takes  the  cheese, 
Heigh-o!  the  dairy-o!     The  mouse  takes  the  cheese. 

9  The  cheese  takes  the  knife,    The  cheese  takes  the  knife, 
Heigh-o!  the  dairy-o!     The  cheese  takes  the  knife. 

10  The  knife  stands  alone,     The  knife  stands  alone, 
Heigh-o!  the  dairy-o!     The  knife  stands  alone. 


Directions  for  Play:— A  leader  is  chosen  for  farmer,  and  the  children  circle  ahout 
him.  He  chooses  a  child  for  the  wife,  she  chooses  a  child,  etc.  The  children  chosen  from 
the  big  circle  form  a  smaller  circle  within  the  greater  and  revolve  with  the  others.  At  the 
end  of  the  game  the  child  chosen  for  the  knife  is  privileged  to  begin  the  next  game  in  the 
role  of  the  farmer. 


Dramatization,  Story  Telling,  Games,  Songs  197 


THE  BUTTERFLIES  HIDE  AND  SEEK 
(A  Game  for  the  Eyes) 
From  "Lilts  and  Lyrics" 


Old  German  Air 


w=£ 


:*=£ 


3=+ 


We    are    but  -  ter  -  flies    dip  -  ping     As    we    flit    here    and 


P^fe^ 


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there,         All  the     hon   -  ey  -  sweets      sip  -  ping    From  the 


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bios  -  som  -  cups       fair 

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Now      a  -  way       one        is 


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198 


Public  School  Methods 

THE  BUTTERFLIES  HIDE  AND  SEEK 


1 


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glid  -  ing,    From  the    gar  -  den        he        goes;  Can  you 


L±-n  l  J-fad=fel==#3 


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m 


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guess  who    is         hid   •  ing     In    the  heart    of        a         rose? 


H    J    J 


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_ — _ — ,  rsi  J  J  * — J-ri — i 


J=h=H 


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IN  THE  SPRING 
[From  Melodic  First  Reader 
Oayly  and  with  expression. 


French  Child's  Song 


§3=S 


£ 


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It     is  spring,  Let    us  sing,  Gay  -  ly  dan-cing,  Gay-ly  dan-cing; 


Sg 


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Directions  for  Play:— The  eyes  of  a  child  are  bandaged  and  the  other  players  circle 
about  him,  flying  with  outspread  arms.  One  child  is  selected  to  leave  the  circle  and  hide. 
The  bandage  is  removed  and  the  first  child  is  asked  to  guess  who  has  left  the  circle. 


Dramatization,  Story  Telling >  Games,  Songs  199 


IN  THE  SPRING 


End. 


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It      is  spring,  Let  us  sing,     Gay  -  ly  dan-cing    in     a    ring. 


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Bepeat  from  the  beginning  to  the  end. 


a 


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1.  The  gen  -  tie-men  bow  this  way,    Then  a-gain  bow  this  way 

2.  The    la -dies  all    bow  this  way,    Then  a-gain  bow  this  way. 

3.  The    lit  -  tic  girls  bow  this  way,    Then  a-gain  bow  this  way. 


m 


I      [>\\  Flrt>fj  \fT^=Q 


Directions  for  Play:— Have  the  children  choose  partners  and  form  a  circle.  They 
dance  in  a  circle  while  singing  the  first  part  of  the  song,  which  is  also  the  refrain.  When 
they  sing  "The  gentlemen  bow  this  way,"  the  partners  bow  to  each  other,  making  trie 
gentlemen's  bow  by  putting  heels  together  and  allowing  the  arms  to  drop  straight  in 
front.  Then  they  bow  in  the  opposite  direction  as  they  sing  Then  bow  again  this  way  ; 
then  join  hands  and  dance  to  the  refrain.  The  whole  is  repeated  for  the  second  verse, 
this  time  bowing  as  the  ladies  do,  by  drawing  one  foot  back,  bending  at  the  waist  ana 
spreading  the  skirt.    In  the  third  verse  they  courtesy. 


200 


Public  School  Methods 


c.  L. 


3^ 


UNCLASSIFIED 

THE  CLIMBER 

From  Eleanor  Smith  Music  Course,  Book  I 

Caroline  Lahrabee 


1.  I'd         rath    -  er         be  a         mon  -  key      spry,    Than 

2.  But        now,       if         sit    -  ting         on         a       bough,     Or 

3.  But  if  I        had         a         long  hooked    tail,     And 


fe 


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an    -    y      sort      of      thing,        For       then  I'd  climb    the 

on      the     gar  -  den      wall,       There's    al  -  ways  some  one 

hands  in  -  stead    of        feet,       There's    no  one  that  could 


high  -  est  tree,  And  down  from  branch  -  es  swing, 
who  will  say,  "Come  down  or  you  will  fall!" 
pull      me     down,    Just      when      I'd       got        a  seat. 


Lively. 


JACK  AND  JILL 

From  Melodic  First  Reader 


J.  W.  Elliott.    (Ait.) 


1.  Jack  and  Jill  went  up    the  hill     To  fetch   a  pail    of    wa    -    ter; 

2.  Up   Jack  got  and  home  did  trot,    As   fast  as  he  could  ca    -    per, 

3.  Jill  came  in   and  she    did  grin,  To    see  his  pa  -  per  plas  -  ter; 

_, , ,f"      *     „ . ^L«- 


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Jack  fell  down,  and  broke  his  crown,  And  Jill  came  tumbling  aft  -  er. 
Went  to  bed  to  mend  his  head,  With  vin-e-gar  and  brown  pa  -  per. 
Moth-er,  vexed,  did  whip  her  next,   For  caus-ing  Jack's  dis  -  as  -  ter. 


S3 


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Dramatization,  Story  Telling,  Games,  Songs  201 


THE  GINGER  CAT 
From  Melodic  First  Reader 
Mildred  Travers  Anderson 

With  humor  and  precision.  *" 


Daniel  Protheroe 


m 


se; 


si 


- *=*=» 


Q 


1.  I      had  the  fin  -  est    lit  -  tie    cat,    All 

2.  He  was  the  fin  -  est  kit  -  ty  round,  And 

3.  A  small  gray  mouse  passed  by  the  shelf,  And 


^^^^^^^P^^^N 


pS=*=lZ*=  II  =*=!=* 


£ 


made  of    cake  and  nice    and    fat;    With  frost  -  ed    ears,     and 
had  been  baked  and  nice  -  ly  browned,  I    placed   him     on         a 
saw  poor    kit  -  ty      by    him  -  self.    Wee  mouse  left  three  small 


SEE^ 


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slower. 


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sug  -  ar       toes,         Two  cur-rant  eyes  and  a  gin  -  ger  nose, 
shelf    one     day,  And  then,  a  -  las,    went    off      to    play, 

crumbs  be-hind—  'Twas  all      of         kit  -  ty         I     could  find. 


£ 


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202  Public  School  Methods 

33.  List  of  Books.  Melodic  First  Reader:  Ripley  and  Tapper. 
American  Book  Company. 

Eleanor  Smith  Music  Course,  Book  I.  Eleanor  Smith.  American 
Book  Company. 

Rote  Song  Book.     Ripley  and  Tapper.     American  Book  Co. 

Modem  Music  Primer.     Eleanor  Smith.     Silver,  Burdette  &  Co. 

Lilts  and  Lyrics.   Jessie  L.  Gaynor.    Clayton  F.  Summy  Co. ,  Chicago . 

Songs  and  Scissors.  Jessie  L.  Gaynor.  Clayton  F.  Summy  Co., 
Chicago. 

Songs  of  the  Child  World,  Books  I  and  II.  Jessie  L.  Gaynor. 
John  Church  Company,  Chicago. 

Songs  and  Shadow  Pictures.  Jessie  L.  Gaynor.  John  Church 
Company,  Chicago. 

Fifty  Children's  Songs.  Carl  Reinecke.  Clayton  F.  Summy  Co., 
Chicago. 

Song  Stories  for  Kindergarten.  Mildred  J.  and  Patty  Hill.  Clayton 
F.  Summy  Co.,  Chicago. 

Songs  of  Nature  and  Life.  Mildred  J.  and  Patty  Hill.  Clayton 
F.  Summy  Co.,  Chicago. 

Songs  and  Games  for  Little  Ones.  Walker  and  Jenks.  Oliver 
Ditson  &  Co.,  Boston. 

Cotton  Dolly  and  Other  Songs.  Daniel  Prothero.  Clayton  F. 
Summy  Co.,  Chicago. 

Silver  Song  Series  No.  I,  for  first  or  second  grade,  Frederic  A. 
Lyman;  No.  II,  for  second  or  third  grade,  Fannie  Arnold  and  Mar- 
cella  Reilly;  No.  Ill,  for  third  or  fourth  grade,  Samuel  W.  Cole. 
Silver,  Burdett  &  Company,  Chicago. 

TEST  QUESTIONS 

i.  Distinguish  between  dramatic  instinct  and  dramatic 
talent.  Why  is  it  unwise  to  attempt  to  develop  dramatic 
talent  in  young  children? 

2.  Show  why  dramatization  should  be  continued  through 
the  third  grade.  Name  at  least  three  selections  which 
can  be  used  for  this  purpose,  and  give  reasons  for  your 
choice. 

3.  Describe  your  method  of  using  stories.  Which  class  of 
stories  named  in  Section  8  do  you  find  most  acceptable? 
Why? 

4.  Show  the  relation  of  story-telling  to  discipline.  How 
can  this  relation  be  made  the  most  effective? 


Dramatization,  Story  Telling,  Games,  Songs  203 

5.  Show  how  the  use  of  the  story  aids  the  pupils  in  gain- 
ing power  of  expression.  What  branches  besides  language 
are  aided  by  the  use  of  stories? 

6.  Name  three  reasons  why  games  should  be  used  in 
school.  Name  at  least  two  dangers  to  be  avoided  in  the  use 
of  games,  and  show  how  you  would  avoid  them. 

7.  Should  the  teacher  take  part  in  games  on  the  play- 
ground?    Give  reasons  for  your  answer. 

8.  Show  how  story-telling,  games  and  songs  develop  the 
power  of  attention  in  pupils.  Which  do  you  consider  the 
best  for  this  purpose?     Why? 

9.  How  do  songs  and  games  assist  in  dramatization? 
Illustrate. 

ic.  Show  how  games  can  be  used  to  strengthen  discipline. 
What  sort  of  games  are  most  desirable  for  this  purpose? 


CHAPTER  SEVEN 
FIRST  YEAR  NUMBER  WORK 

1.  Introduction.  In  the  discussion  of  number  work  here 
given,  our  aim  is  not  so  much  to  lay  down  hard  and 
fast  rules  for  the  teaching  of  this  subject  or  to  outline  defi- 
nitely a  course  of  study  as  to  present  the  psychological  aspect 
of  the  subject,  to  show  the  best  methods  of  teaching  numbers 
and  to  suggest  various  devices  tor  the  aid  of  the  teacher. 
The  devices  used  are  so  many  and  so  varied  that  a  teacher 
must  exercise  her  own  common  sense  in  adapting  them. 
If  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  psychology  of  number,  she 
will  find  no  difficulty  in  discriminating  between  good  and 
poor  devices. 

It  is  well  to  remember  that  "methods,"  accepted  in  the 
true  sense  of  the  word,  have  little  value  to  the  practical 
teacher.  One  of  the  easiest  things  in  the  teaching  of  arith- 
metic is  the  creation  of  "method,"  but  a  little  experience 
proves  that  there  is  no  one  method  that  will  lead  to  easy 
victory  in  the  teaching  of  number.  The  wise  teacher 
acquaints  herself  with  the  most  successful  methods  employed 
by  the  most  successful  teachers,  accepts  the  great  underlying 
principles,  and  adapts  the  work  to  suit  the  needs  of  her 
pupils. 

2.  Value  of  Number  Work.  In  general,  we  may  say  that 
the  value  of  number  work  may  be  considered  from  two 
standpoints;  first,  from  the  standpoint  of  its  value  as  a 
subject  of  practical  usefulness,  and  second,  from  the  stand- 
point of  its  culture  value.  In  regard  to  the  first,  little  need 
be  said,  for  the  value  is  too  evident  to  need  much  discus- 
sion. In  many  phases  of  our  e very-day  life  we  realize  the 
necessity  of  a  knowledge  of  arithmetic.  We  use  it  in  buying 
and  selling,  in  building  our  houses,  in  surveying  our  land, 
and,  in  short,  in  nearly  everything  we  do.  In  regard  to  the 
second,  we  have  only  to  consider  the  mental  discipline  that 

204 


First  Year  Number  Work  205 

results  from  the  study  of  number  work.  Consider  for  a 
moment  what  every  operation  in  number  work  involves. 
In  the  first  place,  attention  is  demanded;  for  without  atten- 
tion no  clear,  systematic  work  can  be  done.  Furthermore, 
perception,  memory,  and  clear,  accurate  reasoning  and  judg- 
ment are  demanded.  Arithmetic  is,  clearly,  then,  both  a 
utility  subject  and  a  culture  subject. 

3.  Origin  of  the  Number  Concept.  Before  we  can  con- 
sider the  best  ways  of  teaching  numbers,  we  must  thoroughly 
understand  where  we  get  this  idea  of  number,  that  is,  how 
the  number  concept  originates.  A  child  does  not  come  into 
the  world  with  the  idea  of  number  in  his  mind.  The  world 
he  sees  is  a  vague,  undefined  mass,  and  he  does  not  know 
that  the  objects  he  sees  are  six  or  eight  or  two  or  three. 
As  he  grows  older,  the  word  six  or  two  conveys  no  meaning 
to  his  mind,  neither  does  showing  him  four  objects  and 
telling  him  they  are  four  convey  to  him  any  real  idea  of 
the  number  four.  He  still  sees  merely  the  group.  It  is 
well,  then,  to  remember  that  number  is  not  a  property  of 
objects  to  be  grasped  by  seeing  or  feeling  the  objects.  It 
is  nothing  concrete  that  can  be  picked  up  and  looked  at, 
but  it  is  an  abstract  idea  that  demands  some  mental  activity 
before  it  can  be  truly  grasped. 

If  you  have  ever  observed  little  children  playing  about 
their  home,  you  will  have  noticed  their  instinctive  tendency 
to  count;  not  by  the  names  of  the  numbers,  but  counting, 
nevertheless.  They  pick  out  all  of  their  square  blocks  and 
build  houses;  they  separate  nuts  from  candy;  they  count 
the  chairs;  they  count  their  dolls;  they  are  constantly  count- 
ing by  discriminating  between  objects  of  different  shape  or 
size  or  color.  A  little  boy  that  we  knew  had  a  habit  of  ci 
ing  about  the  room,  touching  each  tack  in  the  carpet  as 
he  passed  and  saying,  "One— three,"  "One— three,"  over 
and  over.  The  number  meant  little  or  nothing  to  him, 
but  the  counting  idea  was  in  his  mind.  He  knew  thai  all 
of  those  tacks  constituted  a  group  of  objects.  He  had  the 
idea  of  the  whole.     Furthermore,  he  recognized  each  tack 


206  Public  School  Methods 

as  a  separate,  individual  thing;  and,  lastly  he  realized  that 
each  tack  belonged  to  the  whole,  that  it  was  a  part  of  the 
group. 

In  every  act  of  counting,  three  processes  are  involved. 
A  child  first  sees  all  of  the  objects  as  one  vague  whole — a 
unity.  Later,  he  notices  the  separate  objects  that  make 
up  this  group.  Finally,  he  puts  the  separate  objects  together 
and  once  more  makes  up  the  whole.  To  these  three  processes, 
or  mental  activities,  psychologists  have  given  names.  The 
first  they  call  synthesis,  from  two  Greek  words  meaning  to 
put  together.  It  must  be  understood  that  this  synthesis  is 
very  vague  and  not  a  conscious  process.  It  is  simply  recog- 
nition of  a  lot  of  things  as  one  vague  mass.  The  next  step 
is  called  analysis — the  taking  apart,  the  separating  of  a 
whole  into  its  parts.  The  third  is  synthesis  again — or  the 
final  putting  together  of  the  parts  belonging  to  the  whole. 
It  must  not  be  thought  that  a  child  does  this  by  any  conscious 
effort  on  his  part.  It  is  instinctive  with  him,  and  there- 
fore gives  a  true  psychological  basis  for  a  method  of  number 
work. 

We  have  seen  the  processes  involved  in  getting  the 
number  idea,  but  it  may  not  be  clear  to  all  why  these 
processes  arise. 

It  is  universally  conceded  that  the  idea  of  number  arises 
from  the  mind's  activity  in  measuring  quantity.  To  illus- 
trate, a  child  stretches  out  his  hands  for  the  moon  and  cries 
because  he  cannot  get  it.  He  has  no  idea  of  distance,  in 
short,  no  idea  of  quantity,  for  the  nearness  and  farness  of 
objects  are  quantitative  ideas.  As  a  child  grows  older,  he 
begins  to  discriminate.  He  does  not  reach  for  something 
on  the  other  side  of  the  room,  because  he  knows  he  cannot 
get  it.  He  has  measured  the  distance.  A  little  child  in 
making  mud  pies  picks  out  small  stones  for  cherries  or 
raisins.  He  discriminates  between  stones  of  different  size 
and  shape  and  chooses  the  number  he  wishes.  Here  again, 
the  idea  of  measure  comes  into  play,  for  he  is  measuring 
his  means  to  fit  the  end.    As  the  child  grows  older,  he  becomes 


First  Year  Number  Work  207 

more  and  more  discriminating.  He  learns  to  choose  just 
the  amount,  just  the  size,  just  the  color,  just  the  softness 
or  the  hardness  he  wishes.  He  has  a  definite  aim  in  view, 
and  he  measures  or  chooses  his  materials  and  plans  accord- 
ingly. It  is  exactly  this  nice  adjustment  of  means  to  an 
end  that  gives  rise  to  number.  We  measure  a  thing,  at 
first,  vaguely,  indefinitely.  Later,  we  learn  that  vague 
measurements  mean  loss  of  time  and  energy,  for  what  we 
have  done  is  not  right  and  has  to  be  done  over  again;  conse- 
quently, we  learn  to  be  exact,  to  search  for  exact  measure- 
ments. Here  we  turn  to  numbers  for  aid,  for  through  them 
we  attain  accuracy. 

In  this  process  of  measuring,  of  getting  quantitative 
ideas,  what  mental  processes  have  been  involved  but  the 
same  ones  of  analysis  and  synthesis?  The  child  in  picking 
out  his  cherries  for  his  mud  pies,  studies  the  separate  pebbles. 
He  separates  all  the  pebbles  he  sees  into  pebbles  of  different 
size  or  shape;  that  is,  he  analyzes.  Furthermore,  he  puts 
together  all  the  pebbles  of  one  kind  and  calls  them  cherries. 
He  constructs  again  the  group,  the  whole,  the  unity.  In 
other  words,  he  synthesizes. 

We  have  seen  now  what  mental  activities  are  involved 
in  the  origin  of  the  number  idea  and  how  the  number 
idea  itself  arises  from  the  mind's  activity  in  measuring 
quantity. 

As  we  become  more  and  more  familiar  with  number  and 
its  meaning,  we  realize  that  the  idea  of  number  arises  from 
this  quantitative  measuring.  What  would  our  idea  of  a  lot 
fifty  by  a  hundred  feet  be  if  we  had  no  idea  of  a  foot  or 
some  such  unit  by  which  mentally  we  could  measure  the 
lot?  What  should  we  know  of  the  value  of  a  thousand 
dollars  if  we  knew  nothing  of  the  value  of  the  unit  of  measure, 
one  dollar?  We  are  constantly  measuring  in  just  this  way — 
estimating  the  worth  of  a  whole  by  referring  it  to  some 
known  unit  of  measure. 

From  this  fact,  we  get  a  certain  foundation  for  our 
methods  in  number  work. 


208  Public  School  Methods 

4.  Methods  in  Vogue.  Two  methods  of  teaching  are  in 
vogue  in  most  schools,  a  method  which  deals  with  figures 
and  symbols  alone  and  a  method  which  deals  with  objects 
alone.  Often  the  two  are  combined.  Let  us  examine  these 
two  methods  in  turn.  The  first,  which  is  rapidly  going  out 
of  use,  deals  with  number  symbols  alone  and  consists  in 
requiring  the  performance  of  various  operations  by  means 
of  figures.  Addition,  subtraction  and  the  other  arithmetical 
operations  are  carried  on  in  a  mechanical  way  without 
regard  to  what  figures  or  processes  signify.  In  the  second 
method,  objects  are  used,  and  it  is  taken  for  granted  that 
the  concept  of  number  will  arise  from  merely  observing  or 
handling  the  objects,  whereas  it  only  arises  from  the  mind's 
activity  in  adapting  certain  things  to  a  certain  end  in  view. 
There  must  be  constructive  activity  before  the  number 
idea  is  grasped. 

In  the  psychological  method,  which  is  the  true  method, 
account  is  taken  of  this  constructive  activity  of  the  child, 
this  measuring,  this  suiting  of  the  means  to  the  end  that 
brings  one  to  the  need  of  exact  ideas  of  quantity — in  other 
words,  to  the  need  of  number.  Accordingly,  we  must  base 
our  method  of  procedure  upon  it.  We  must  not  thrust 
unmeaning  numbers  upon  the  child,  but  rather  lead  him 
to  feel  the  need  of  them.  Let  him  feel  the  relation  which 
numbers  bear  to  objects  and  he  will,  in  time,  unconsciously 
grasp  the  abstract  idea  of  number,  if  we  wisely  direct  his 
natural,  instinctive  activity  of  measuring. 

5.  Ground  Usually  Covered  During  the  First  Year.  Most 
children  upon  entering  school  have  some  idea  of  number. 
Many  of  them  can  count;  nearly  all  can  count  to  five,  at 
least.  During  their  first  year  their  number  work  consists 
mainly  of  measuring.  In  some  schools  no  definite  period 
is  given  to  number  work  during  the  first  year,  but  the  work 
is  done  incidentally  in  connection  with  other  studies.  In 
the  majority  of  schools,  however,  the  child  by  the  end  of 
the  first  year  is  expected  to  be  able  to  combine  and  separate 
numbers  to  ten  or  twelve;  to  comprehend  the  fractions  £, 


First  Year  Number  Work  209 

£  and  \;  to  have  a  knowledge  of  such  forms  as  squares, 
oblongs,  prisms,  triangles,  cylinders  and  circles.  In  some 
schools  he  is  supposed  to  be  able  to  read  and  write  numbers 
to  one  hundred.  Upon  the  whole,  this  does  not  seem  too 
much  to  expect  of  a  bright  child. 

6.  Plan.  Teachers — inexperienced  ones,  especially — are 
often  at  a  loss  to  know  how  to  start  children  in  number 
work.  It  is  always  necessary  to  find  out  at  the  beginning 
how  much  the  pupil  knows.  This  can  easily  be  done  in 
connection  with  other  work.  For  instance,  ask  one  little 
beginner  to  count  the  children  in  his  class  to  see  how  many 
pencils  will  have  to  be  distributed.  If  he  can  count  only 
to  three  ask  some  one  else  to  go  on.  Ask  another  to  get 
you  two  pieces  of  crayon  from  the  box  on  the  shelf;  another 
to  pass  three  pairs  of  scissors.  In  this  way  without  the 
children's  being  conscious  of  the  fact,  the  teacher  can  find 
out  just  how  much  each  child  knows  and  can  plan  her  work 
accordingly. 

Counting.  Much  of  the  work  in  counting  can  be  carried 
on  incidentally  in  connection  with  the  work  in  reading, 
spelling,  language,  etc.,  and  used  as  a  device  to  secure  and 
hold  the  child's  interest  and  attention. 

The  teacher  wishes  to  send  a  beginning  class  to  the  black- 
board to  write  words.  To  gain  attention  she  may  say,  "  One 
little  boy  pass  to  the  front  board.  Two  girls  pass  to  the 
side  board.  Three  boys  and  one  girl  to  the  back  board." 
Then  ask  quickly,  "How  many  at  the  front  board?  How 
many  girls  standing?  How  many  boys  at  the  back  board?' 
Children  are  very  fond  of  this  kind  of  work,  and  one  or  two 
minutes  of  the  recitation  period  can  be  very  profitably  spent 
impressing  the  idea  of  number. 

For  the  first  few  lessons,  it  would  be  well  not  to  intro- 
duce numbers  at  all.  Let  the  lessons  consist  of  measure- 
ments and  let  the  results  be  expressed  indefinitely,  that  is, 
expressed  without  the  use  of  numbers. 

7.  Illustrative  Lessons,  (a)  Lesson  in  Measurement. 
Purpose;     To    familiarize  the   class  with   the  measurement 


210  Public  School  Methods 

expressed  by  the  words  taller,  shorter,  longer,  larger,  smaller, 
wider,  more,  less,  etc. 

Material.  A  table,  oblongs  of  different  sizes,  and  cubes, 
with  possibly  a  few  triangles  or  spheres  for  ornamentation. 
If  the  teacher  cannot  get  the  blocks,  she  can  easily  make 
substitutes  from  paper.  The  older  children  can  very  well 
make  them  for  her  in  their  construction  work,  but  only 
perfect  ones  should  be  used. 

Method.  The  teacher  may  introduce  the  lesson  by  say- 
ing, "  How  many  of  you  have  ever  seen  men  building  fences? " 
(Many  say  they  have.)  "  How  many  have  seen  men  build 
fences  of  stone?"  (A  few.)  "Well,  this  morning  we  are 
going  to  build  a  stone  fence  here  on  this  table,  which  we 
shall  call  a  yard.  Our  fence  is  to  be  just  this  long  (showing 
a  twelve-inch  ruler)  and  we  shall  use  these  blocks  for  stones. 
John,  what  kind  of  stones  do  you  think  it  will  be  best  to 
use  first?" 

"The  heaviest  ones." 

"Which  ones  do  you  think  would  be  apt  to  be  the 
heaviest?" 

"The  largest  ones." 

"Dorothy,  pick  out  the  largest  ones."  (The  largest  are 
two-inch  oblongs.) 

"Class,  has  she  picked  out  the  right  ones?" 

If  she  has  not,  the  blocks  must  be  measured  and  the 
smaller  ones  discarded. 

"Frank,  you  may  lay  the  first  stone." 

Frank  places  it. 

"Willie,  find  another  just  as  large  as  Frank's  and  put 
it  in  its  place." 

Several  stones  are  laid,  possibly  seven  or  eight. 

"  How  long  were  we  going  to  have  our  fence  ? ' ' 

"As  long  as  this  ruler." 

"Is  it  as  long?" 

They  measure. 

"It  is  longer." 

They  remove  as  many  blocks  as  necessary. 


First  Year  Number  Work  211 

"  Now,  we  want  our  yard  as  wide  as  this."  (Show  stick 
or  strip  of  paper  ten  inches  long.) 

The  fence  is  laid  accordingly  until  it  is  complete,  the 
children  measuring  to  get  it  exact.    Room  is  left  for  a  gate. 

The  children  also  measure  to  see  how  much  longer  than 
wide  the  fence  is,  giving  the  answer,  "So  much  longer," 
or,  "One  block  longer." 

"  Now  let  us  choose  smaller  stones  for  our  next  row." 

The  stones  are  selected. 

"  Do  you  suppose  we  shall  need  more  or  less  than  in 
our  first  row?" 

If  the  children  say  less,  or  seem  to  be  merely  guessing, 
the  teacher  says,  "We  shall  see  when  we  get  through," 
being  sure  to  do  so  afterwards. 

The  second  row  is  laid. 

"Let  us  make  our  top  row  of  the  smallest  stones  of  all." 

The  children  choose  the  smallest  stones. 

"Shall  we  need  more  or  less  stones  than  we  did  for  our 
second  row?" 

"More." 

"Let  us  make  our  gate  as  pretty  as  we  can.  We  will 
make  the  posts  taller  than  the  fence." 

The  gate  is  made. 

"How  much  taller  are  the  posts  than  the  fence? 

The  children  measure  and  express  the  result  indefinitely; 
as,  "So  much,"  or,  "This  block  and  this  block  taller." 
The  children  ornament  the  posts,  and  possibly  the  fence, 
with  the  odd-shaped  blocks.  During  the  making  of  the 
gateway,  the  question  of  width  can  be  brought  in,  making 
the  children  familiar  with  the  terms  wider  and  narrower. 

"Let  us  make  a  fence  around  another  yard,  longer  and 
wider  than  our  first." 

The  fence  is  readily  constructed,  the  first  being  left  for 
comparison.  During  the  course  of  the  lesson  the  teacher 
can  tell  the  class  that  the  largest  blocks  are  called  oblongs. 
The  cube  also  may  be  called  by  name.  Later,  prisms, 
triangles,  spheres,  etc.,  may  be  introduced  and  the  names 


212  Public  School  Methods 

given.  The  knowledge  of  form  may  be  taught  in  construc- 
tion work  and  drawing,  as  well. 

During  the  construction  of  the  fence  it  is  more  than 
probable  that  some  child  will  count  the  blocks.  This  is 
very  good,  but  no  special  stress  need  be  laid  upon  the  fact, 
as  the  lesson  is  simply  to  measure  and  compare. 

These  same  measurements  may  be  carried  on  in  various 
ways.  Children  may  measure  each  other  or  objects  in  the 
room,  and  also  the  number  of  windows  or  pictures.  There 
are  more  windows  than  doors.  How  many  more  does  not 
matter  just  at  present.  The  children  will  soon  feel  the 
need  of  number,  for  they  will  want  to  know  just  how  much 
taller  John  is  than  Sue,  how  many  more  marbles  Harry 
has  than  Will,  how  much  longer  Ruth's  fence  is  than  Tom's. 
They  will  want  a  shorter  and  better  way  in  which  to  say 
that  Ruth's  fence  is  one  block  and  one  block  and  this  much 
longer  than  Tom's.  When  they  feel  this  need,  then  they 
are  ready  to  deal  with  number. 

(b)  Devices  for  Counting.  (i)  Teaching  the  Names 
of  Numbers.  To  impress  further  the  need  of  number  names, 
devices  somewhat  as  follows  may  be  used:  Let  the  chil- 
dren construct  a  soldier's  tent  of  two  toothpicks.  Tell  them 
to  put  a  floor  in  it.  They  cannot  until  they  have  another 
toothpick.  When  asked  how  many  they  need  for  a  tent 
with  a  floor,  they  say  one  and  one  and  one,  or  two  and  one. 
The  teacher  then  can  give  the  number  three  as  a  better  and 
easier  way  of  saying  one  and  one  and  one,  or  two  and  one. 
In  the  same  way  jour  and  five  may  be  introduced,  the  teacher 
being  sure  to  make  clear  that  five  is  really  one  and  one  and 
one  and  one  and  one,  or  two  and  three,  or  three  and  two,  or 
two  and  two  and  one. 

(2)  Counting  by  Groups.  Not  only  must  the  children 
count  by  ones,  but  they  must  also  count  by  twos  and  threes, 
etc.  How  many  groups  of  two  sticks  have  they?  How 
many  groups  of  three  boys  in  the  room?  How  many  twos 
in  the  group  of  soldiers  on  the  board?  Let  them  count  the 
same  quantity  by  different  groups.     For  instance,   if  they 


First  Year  Number  Work  213 

have  twelve  colored  discs,  let  them  find  the  twos  in  twelve, 
the  threes,  the  fours  and  the  sixes. 

Such  exercises  are  interesting  to  children,  and  the  knowl- 
edge secured  in  this  way  is  more  than  one  would  at  first 
suppose.  To  count  by  2's  from  2  to  10  and  from  1  to  11 
has  the  pleasure  of  any  rhythmic  sequence  and  at  the  same 
time  gives  the  addition  tables  of  2's;  the  counting  by  2's 
from  2  to  20  gives  the  corresponding  multiplication 
tables. 

Similarly,  counting  by  3's  from  3  to  30  gives  the  multi- 
plication table  of  3's,  while  the  counting  from  1  and  2  to 
13  and  14  gives  the  different  addition  combinations. 

In  counting  exercises  have  much  concert  work.  In  this 
it  is  well  to  have  a  member  of  the  class  lead,  whose  busi- 
ness it  is  to  place  a  time  limit,  and  to  correct  mistakes.  If 
the  class  is  counting  by  2's,  and  someone  says,  2,  4,  6,  9, 
the  counting  should  cease  and  the  leader  say,  "There  is 
no  9  in  the  table  of  2's."  Carry  every  counting  to  ten  times 
the  number  with  which  you  started. 

(3)  Number  Pictures.  In  connection  with  this  counting 
work,  the  results  may  be  represented  on  the  blackboard 
by  means  of  dots  or  circles;  as, 

r,-  0.00.  00.  0^0.  000.  0000.0000.  ooono.  ono  ono 
u>  O'     O   >  OO'   OuO'  000>   OOO     »  OOOO'  ooouo>  ouo  ouo 

These  results  may  be  represented  on  cardboard,  using 
colored  paper  discs.  A  great  deal  of  rapid  work  may  be 
done  with  them.  For  instance,  the  teacher  shows  the  card, 
covers  it  quickly  and  asks  how  many  oranges  or  apples, 
or  whatever  the  discs  represent,  were  seen.  She  covers 
one  and  asks  for  the  number  left.  She  covers  two  or  three 
and  asks,  "How  many  are  left?"  "How  many  were  on 
the  card?"  "  How  many  are  covered?"  "We  saw  five  and 
covered  one.  Five  less  one  are  how  many?"  The  ques- 
tions may  be  varied  endlessly. 

When  giving  the  child  the  idea  of  a  number,  as  five, 
for  instance,  he  should,  as  far  as  possible,  become  acquainted 
with    §°8>  the    number    of    objects;    five,  the    word;    and 


214  Public  School  Methods 

5,  the  figure.  These  three  symbols  should  always  be  con- 
nected. 

(c)  Correlation  of  Number  and  Language.  It  must 
be  remembered  that  no  extreme  of  method  should  be  adopted 
by  any  teacher.  To  measure  everything  in  sight,  to  base 
all  arithmetic  on  sticks  or  blocks  or  paper  figures,  to  get 
into  any  narrow  rut  whatever,  is  to  fall  short  of  the  best 
teaching  and  to  narrow  the  horizon  of  the  children  in  our  care. 

The  work  in  language  and  arithmetic  may  be  combined, 
when  the  aim  is  to  familiarize  the  class  with  measurement 
expressed  by  the  terms  larger,  smallest,  heaviest,  etc. 

Material.  Procure  balls  of  various  sizes,  boxes,  crayons 
of  different  lengths,  or  make  use  of  any  like  available  material. 

Method.  The  teacher  may  introduce  the  language  lesson 
with  a  talk  concerning  size,  shape,  color,  etc.,  of  material 
at  hand.  She  can  then  ask  questions  which  call  for  the 
use  of  the  terms  largest,  heaviest,  smallest,  etc.  For  instance, 
she  may  ask,  "Who  wants  the  largest  ball?"  "To  whom 
did  I  give  the  smallest  ball?"  "John,  hand  the  smallest 
ball  to  the  tallest  girl  in  the  class."  "To  whom  did  you 
give  the  smallest  ball?" 

At  first  the  child  will  want  to  answer  your  question  in 
a  single  word,  and  when  the  question,  "Who  wants  the 
largest  ball?"  is  asked,  he  will  probably  say,  "Me."  Tell 
the  child  how  you  wish  to  have  the  question  answered; 
the  ability  to  answer  in  a  complete  sentence  is  a  matter 
of  habit,  and  after  a  few  suggestions  he  will  express  his 
thought  in  complete  sentences. 

An  exercise  to  teach  correct  use  of  /  when  used  in  con- 
nection with  the  verb  is,  and  at  the  same  time  familiarize 
the  class  with  the  measurement  expressed  by  the  terms 
heavier,  heaviest,  etc.,  is  given  below: 

The  teacher  may  hand  the  heaviest  ball  to  Mary  and 
tell  her  to  roll  it  on  the  floor.  Then  she  may  ask,  "Who 
rolled  the  heaviest  ball  on  the  floor?"  The  child  is  expected 
to  answer,  "It  was  I  who  rolled  the  heaviest  ball  on  the 
floor." 


First  Year  Number  Work  215 

(d)  Lessons  to  Cultivate  Ability  to  Judge  Measure- 
ments. Material.  Pint,  quart  and  gallon  measures,  with 
pails  of  various  sizes. 

Method.  The  teacher  begins  by  asking  the  children 
how  many  of  them  have  ever  gone  to  the  store  to  buy  vinegar 
or  molasses  or  oil,  in  response  to  which  many  answer  that 
they  have  done  so.     Then  the  teacher  may  say: 

"How  much  did  you  ask  for?" 

Perhaps  the  children  may  answer  "a  jugful,"  or  "ten 
cents'  worth,"  or  "a  pint,"  "quart,"  etc. 

The  teacher  may  continue  the  conversation  somewhat 
as  follows: 

"What  did  the  storekeeper  do  then?"    (Various  answers.) 

"Well,  how  does  he  know  how  much  to  put  in?  If  you 
ask  for  a  pint,  how  does  he  know  when  he  has  given  you 
a  pint?" 

"He  measures  it." 

"I  have  a  measure  here  that  the  storekeeper  uses  in 
order  to  give  us  just  the  quantity  we  want.  Does  any  one 
know  how  much  it  holds?"  "Well,  it  holds  one  pint." 
"Now,  this  morning  we  are  going  to  buy  and  sell  vinegar 
and  molasses.  Can  any  one  think  of  anything  else  we 
measure  by  the  pint,  so  that  we  can  sell  that,  too?"  (Oil, 
milk,  syrup,  etc.)  "Very  well,  we  shall  buy  and  sell  all  of 
these."  "  Frank,  I  should  like  to  get  a  pint  of  oil  from  you 
this  morning.  Here  is  my  can  to  put  it  in."  (Frank  measures 
out  a  pint  of  water.)  "But  I  do  not  like  that  kind  of  a 
pint.  The  measure  was  not  full  and  then  you  spilled  some." 
(The  children  thus  learn  to  be  careful.)  "Mary,  sell  Tom 
two  pints."  "Sue,  sell  Henry  half  a  pint."  "Sell  Will 
three  pints,  Ruth."  "Now,  here  is  a  larger  measure  that 
the  storekeeper  often  uses  (showing  a  quart  cup).  Does 
any  one  know  how  much  this  holds?"  (Possibly  some  one 
knows  the  name  quart.     If  not,  it  is  told.) 

"Which  is  the  larger,  the  quart  measure  or  the  pint 
measure?" 

"The  quart  measure." 


216  Public  School  Methods 

"Which  one  will  hold  the  more,  therj?" 

"The  quart  measure." 

"  Is  there  any  way  we  can  find  out  how  much  more  it 
holds?" 

"Measure  and  see." 

"How  are  you  going  to  do  it?" 

"Fill  the  pint  cup  and  pour  the  water  in  the  quart  cup 
and  see  how  many  pints  it  holds." 

This  is  done,  the  children  discovering  that  the  pint  cup 
has  to  be  filled  twice. 

"How  many  pints  did  you  say  the  quart  cup  holds?" 

"It  holds  two." 

"How  many  quarts?" 

"One." 

"Then  how  many  pints  in  one  quart?" 

"Two." 

"Tell  me  in  a  complete  sentence." 

"There  are  two  pints  in  one  quart." 

"I  should  like  to  buy  one-half  of  a  quart  of  vinegar. 
Who  can  sell  it  to  me?" 

It  is  measured  out. 

"Find  out  how  many  pints  that  is." 

A  child  measures. 

"  I  want  some  one  to  tell  me  in  a  complete  sentence 
what  we  have  just  found  out." 

"A  half  of  a  quart  is  one  pint." 

"How  many  pints  in  a  whole  quart?" 

"Two." 

"How  many  quarts  in  two  pints?" 

This  may  necessitate  measuring  again  before  the  children 
discover  that  they  already  knew  it. 

"  Now,  here  is  another  measure  (showing  a  two  or  three 
quart  pail).  I  want  you  to  think  a  moment  and  then  tell 
me  how  many  quarts  you  think  it  holds.  You  may  each 
whisper  the  number  to  me  and  then  we  shall  find  out  who 
is  the  nearest  right." 

The  children  think  and  whisper  the  answer. 


First  Year  Number  Work  217 

"Well,  some  say  two,  some  three  and  some  four.  What 
shall  we  do?" 

"Measure." 

"Mary,  you  may  measure." 

Mary  measures,  the  children  keeping  count.  Pails  of 
various  sizes  are  used,  the  children  each  time  estimating 
the  amount  the  pail  holds  and  then  proving  their  estimates. 
In  this  way  they  rapidly  learn  to  judge  quantity. 

Problems  like  the  following  may  be  introduced: 

(i)  "Mary,  take  one  pint  of  vinegar."  "Bessie,  give 
her  one  more."  "Class,  how  many  pints  has  she  now?" 
(Two.)     "How  many  quarts?"     (One.) 

(2)  "Tom,  sell  Sue  a  quart  of  milk."  "Robert,  sell  her 
a  pint."     "How  much  milk  has  she  now?" 

"A  quart  and  a  pint." 
"How  many  pints  is  that?" 
"Three  pints." 
"How  many  quarts  is  it?" 
"  It  is  a  quart  and  one-half." 

(3)  "If  Sue  has  three  pints  of  vinegar  and  buys  two 
more,  how  many  pints  will  she  have  ? "    "  How  many  quarts  ? " 

Various  examples  may  be  given,  the  actual  measurements 
being  taken  whenever  a  child  does  not  know  the  answer. 
The  lessons  should  proceed  until  the  children  know  that 
two  pints  make  one  quart,  four  quarts  make  one  gallon, 
and  can  rapidly  think  gallons  into  quarts  or  pints,  and 
vice  versa.  They  should  know  also  that  eight  pints  make 
one  gallon;  four  pints,  two  quarts;  two  quarts,  one-hall 
gallon,  etc.  Dry  measure  may  be  taught  in  the  same 
way. 

Caution.  Take  plenty  of  time  with  this  work.  Do  not 
do  the  thinking  for  the  children,  but  throw  them  back  on 
their  own  resources  and  make  them  find  the  answers  for 
themselves.  Too  much  emphasis  cannot  be  laid  upon  the 
fact  that  the  actual  measurements  must  be  made  until  they 
are  no  longer  necessary.  In  all  cases  insist  upon  exact 
measurements. 


218  Public  School  Methods 

(e)  Lesson  to  Secure  Rapidity  and  Accuracy  in 
the  Combination  and  Separation  of  Small  Numbers. 
Material.  Cents,  five-cent  pieces,  materials  for  a  store, 
which  may  be  a  grocery,  dry  goods  store,  art  store  or  any 
other.  When  it  is  practicable,  it  is  well  to  have  small  quan- 
tities of  the  actual  materials.  Money  made  from  cardboard 
will  do  very  nicely  for  this  work.  Cut  circles  from  card- 
board and  mark  them  to  represent  different  denominations. 
Paper  money  can  also  be  secured  from  any  kindergarten 
supply  house. 

Methods.  The  teacher  begins  by  asking  if  any  one  knows 
why  we  have  to  pay  for  the  things  we  buy  at  the  stores. 
This  will  lead  to  quite  a  discussion,  bringing  out  the  fact 
that  the  articles  were  produced  by  hard  labor,  that  the 
money  to  buy  them  was  produced  likewise,  and  consequently 
the  seller  wants  to  get  what  his  goods  are  worth  and  the 
buyer  wants  to  get  the  worth  of  his  money.  This  will  give 
a  reason  for  being  exact  in  making  change.  Then  the  teacher 
may  say,  "We  are  going  to  play  store  this  morning  and 
Joe  may  be  storekeeper.  If  he  makes  a  mistake  in  giving 
change,  some  one  else  may  be  storekeeper.  Before  we  begin 
let  us  talk  for  a  moment  about  the  money  I  have  (shows 
pennies) .  You  all  know  what  these  are  called,  but  I  wonder 
how  many  know  what  this  is  (showing  a  nickel)." 

Nearly  all  do. 

"Can  any  one  tell  me  how  many  cents  it  equals?" 

Some  one  will  probably  know,  but  if  not,  the  teacher  tells. 

"Now  I  need  some  pencils  this  morning.  I  want  two 
and  they  cost  a  cent  apiece.  John,  take  this  money  and 
buy  them  for  me.  Before  you  go,  tell  us  how  much  money 
you  have." 

He  has  four  cents. 

"While  John  is  buying  the  pencils,  let  us  be  thinking 
about  how  much  he  will  have  to  pay,  so  that  we  can  tell 
if  he  brings  back  the  right  amount." 

John  buys  the  pencils  and  returns  with  the  money  he 
did  not  use.     The  children  are  asked  whether  or  not  the 


First  Year  Number  Work  219 

amount  is  correct.  Several  are  sent  with  various  amounts 
and  buy  various  articles,  the  class  always  examining  the 
change.  Some  one  is  given  a  nickel  and  sent  to  buy  a  three- 
cent  ball.  If  he  accepts  the  wrong  change,  he  is  told  to  go 
back,  take  as  many  cents  as  the  nickel  is  worth,  and  try 
again.  Then  he  is  sent  once  more  with  the  nickel.  To 
prevent  the  storekeeper's  having  to  do  all  of  the  thinking 
in  making  change,  the  child  buying  is  often  asked  to  tell 
how  much  change  he  will  get.  When  the  children  can  make 
change  rapidly  and  easily,  simple  problems  are  given  and 
solved  without  the  use  of  the  money.  This  is  done  rapidly, 
but  if  a  child  makes  a  mistake,  he  must  take  the  money  and 
buy  the  articles. 

The  problems  may  be  like  the  following: 

(i)  John  had  four  cents  and  spent  two.  How  many 
did  he  have  left? 

(2)  If  one  pencil  costs  five  cents  and  a  ball  three,  how 
much  will  they  cost  together? 

(3)  If  Sue  had  a  nickel,  and  her  mother  gave  her  two 
cents,  how  many  cents  did  she  have? 

As  soon  as  the  children  are  ready  for  it,  two  nickels  may 
be  introduced,  the  fact  that  they  equal  ten  cents  being 
firmly  fixed  by  actual  counting.  Problems  involving  the 
addition  and  subtraction  of  numbers  from  one  to  ten  may 
be  performed.  Quarters  and  half-dollars  may  be  used  later, 
though  the  pupils  below  the  third  grade  cannot  and  should 
not  be  expected  to  master  the  addition  and  subtraction 
facts  involved.  They  may  use  numbers  to  twelve,  or  even 
fifteen,  and  may  learn  to  count  by  twos,  fives  and  tens, 
but  do  not  expect  them  to  know  that  nineteen  and  six  are 
twenty-five  or  twenty-five  less  eleven  are  fourteen. 

Caution.  Remember  that  rapidity  and  accuracy  are  to 
be  sought  as  the  basis  of  future  work.  Use  objects  until 
the  number  facts  are  clearly  seen,   then   give  rapid  drills. 

Teach  the  children  to  make  change  as  the  business  men 
of  today  make  it,  always  naming  the  amount  purchased, 
then  adding  the  required  amount  of  change. 


220  Public  School  Methods 

(f)  The  Use  of  Charts.  A  teacher  who  is  skilful  in 
the  use  of  chalk  can  secure  excellent  results  in  teaching 
easy  number  facts  by  simply  stepping  to  the  board  and 
with  a  few  strokes  illustrating  the  number  stories.  For  one 
who  has  not  this  skill,  charts  will  prove  of  assistance.  They 
may  be  made  with  but  little  time  and  expense,  and  require 
little  skill  in  their  making.     (See  Volume  Two,  page  313.) 

The  purpose  of  the  chart  on  page  221  is  to  teach  the 
number  facts  connected  with  seven.  Stories  may  be  told 
concerning  each  picture.  At  first  the  teacher  may  tell  them, 
but  later  on,  as  the  children  grasp  the  idea,  they  will  take 
great  pleasure  in  telling  the  stories  themselves.  The  follow- 
ing will  serve  as  suggestions  for  these  stories: 

By  way  of  introduction  the  teacher  may  say,  "One 
morning,  happening  to  look  out  of  the  window,  I  saw  some 
little  birds  in  the  yard.  There  were  this  number  of  birds 
(pointing  to  the  first  picture).      How  many  were  there,  Belle? " 

"Seven." 

"As  I  watched  them,  four  went  over  in  the  corner  of 
the  yard  and  found  some  wheat  (pointing  to  the  second 
picture).  How  'many  were  left?  In  a  few  minutes  they 
came  back  and  then  five  went  over  to  the  other  corner  of 
the  yard  and  seemed  to  be  talking  together.  How  many 
were  new  left?" 

The  story  may  continue  in  this  way,  using  all  of  the 
pictures  so  as  to  bring  in  the  number  facts.  The  story  may 
be  a  continuous  one,  bringing  in  all  of  the  pictures,  or  separate 
stories  may  be  told  for  each  picture,  care  being  taken  not 
to  let  the  number  aim  of  the  lessen  be  lost  sight  of  in  the 
story  telling.  Each  picture  represents  an  addition  fact  and 
a  subtraction  fact.  When  the  children  have  grasped  these 
facts,  the.  drill  work  as  illustrated  by  the  problems  below 
should  follow.  These  charts  with  their  little  problems  furnish 
good  seat  work  when  the  children  have  learned  to  make 
numbers. 

Number  cards,  which  can  be  purchased  of  any  kinder- 
garten supply  house    are  very  good  for  children   to  use  in 


222  Public  School  Methods 

telling  number  stories.  At  first  it  is  desirable  to  have  the 
children  simply  copy  the  number  stories  from  the  black- 
board. In  this  way  the  correct  form  and  answers  are  being 
constantly  impressed  upon  the  child  s  mind.  Later,  he  may 
copy  the  examples  and  place  the  correct  answers  for  himself. 

The  number  cards  may  also  be  used  for  counting  by  2's, 
3's,  4's,  etc. 

The  children  will  also  enjoy  making  little  picture  charts 
of  their  own  to  illustrate  number  facts.  In  place  of  birds, 
they  can  draw  balls  or  haystacks  or  trees,  or  any  objects 
that  can  be  made  with  a  few  simple  lines. 

By  the  end  of  the  first  year  the  children  should  know 
well  the  simpler  combinations,  such  as  4  +  4,  3+2,  2+2, 
etc.,  and  their  corresponding  subtraction  tables.  For  drill  on 
this  work  use  cards  made  of  tag  board,  cut  in  a  convenient 
size  to  hold  in  the  hand.  Print  the  numbers  large  enough 
to  be  seen  across  the  room,  and  do  not  indicate  on  the  card 
whether  the  numbers  are  to  be  multiplied,  subtracted  or 
added.  If  you  wish  to  have  a  drill  in  addition,  tell  the  chil- 
dren they  are  to  add  the  numbers,  etc.  The  form  of  the 
card  should  be  somewhat  like  the  form  shown  below. 

(g)  Lesson  in  Written  "Work.  In  introducing  this 
lesson,  the  teacher  may  say:  "We  have  been 
playing  store  quite  a  long  time  and  have  been 
learning  to  make  change.  This  morning  we 
are  going  to  find  out  how  to  write  some  of 
the  things  that  we  have  learned.  Who  can 
show  me  on  the  board  how  many  balls  I  have 
(holding  up  one)?"  Doubtless  some  child  can. 
Then  the  teacher  may  continue  the  conversation : 
"You  may  all  show  me."     They  all  write  1. 

"Can  any  show  me  how  many  I  have  now?"  (Holds 
up  two.)     No  one  can  do  so. 

"Very  well,  I  will  show  you.  The  teacher  writes  the 
figure  2,  leaves  it  a  moment,  erases  and  asks  the  children 
to  write  it.  It  may  be  necessary  for  her  to  write  and  erase 
several  times  before  the  children  can  make  the  figure. 


First  Year  Number  Work  223 

"John  bought  a  pencil  for  one  cent  and  an  apple  for 
one  cent.  Show  me  on  the  board  how  many  cents  he 
spent." 

"Mary  had  two  cents  and  spent  one.  Tell  me  on  the 
board  how  many  cents  she  had  left." 

In  this  same  way,  the  figures  to  ten  are  taught.  In  later 
lessons  the  signs  plus  and  minus  are  introduced. 

Many  lessons  need  to  be  given  during  the  year  whose 
aim  is  to  teach  the  children  to  write  neatly  and  correctly 
such  numbers  as  they  are  called  upon  to  use  daily.  The 
2,  5,  6,  8  and  9  need  especial  attention  and  drill.  When 
a  child  has  great  difficulty  in  making  a  number,  take  his 
hand  and  help  him  to  make  it. 

(h)  Lesson  on  Halves,  Thirds  and  Fourths.  Material. 
It  is  of  little  importance  what  material  is  used  to  make 
the  work  in  fractions  concrete,  sticks,  paper  folding,  clay 
cubes  or  any  material  on  hand  will  suffice  for  the  purpose. 
The  teacher  may  use  strips  of  paper  twelve  inches  long. 
Give  two  strips  of  paper  to  each  child. 

Method.  In  presenting  the  work  in  fractions  it  is  well 
to  remember  that  a  fraction,  as  J,  is  used  in  three  distinct 
ways.  These  ways  are  as  follows:  (1)  £  of  a  single  thing, 
the  most  natural  idea  of  all — the  breaking  of  a  thing  into 
8  parts;  (2)  J  as  large,  as  where  a  i-inch  block  is  \  as  long 
as  an  8-inch  block;  (3)  J  of  a  group,  as  in  the  case  of  \  of 
16  children.  A  variety  of  problems  should  be  given  the 
children,  so  that  little  by  little  all  three  notions  become 
familiar  to  them. 

To  open  the  lesson  the  teacher  may  tell  the  children  that 
they  will  do  some  measuring  with  their  paper  rulers.  She 
tells  each  one  to  take  the  strip  of  paper  and  fold  it  exactly 
in  the  center.  This  is  done.  Then  the  teacher  continues: 
"Into  how  many  equal  parts  have  you  divided  it?" 

"Two." 

"One  of  these  parts  is  one  out  of  how  many  parts?" 

"One  part  is  one  out  of  two." 

"This  is  how  we  express  one  out  of  two:     J"  (writes  it 


224  Public  School  Methods 

on  the  board).    "We  call  it  one-half."    "Show  me  §  of  your 
ruler."     "Show  me  f."     "■§  is  what  part  of  the  ruler?" 

"  Now  take  these  toothpicks  and  divide  them  into  two 
equal  parts."  (Gives  each  child  four  toothpicks.)  "Show 
me  J."  "Show  me  f."  "One  of  these  parts  is  one  out  of 
how  many?" 

"  You  may  now  take  your  other  ruler  and  fold  it  into 
three  parts." 

This  is  done. 

"One  part  out  of  these  is  one  out  of  how  many?" 

"It  is  one  out  of  three." 

"If  we  express  one  out  of  two  thus  (writing  £),  who 
can  show  me  how  to  express  one  out  of  three?" 

If  no  one  can  tell,  the  teacher  writes  it. 

"We  call  it  one-third.  Each  part  is  ^  of  the  whole." 
"Show  me  $  of  your  ruler."  "Show  me  another  §."  "An- 
other."    "|  and  ^  are  how  many  thirds?" 

"Two-thirds." 

"Show  me  §  of  your  ruler."  "Show  me  |,"  "What 
part  of  the  ruler  is  f  of  it?"  "If  we  express  one  out  of  three 
parts  thus  (writing  ^),  how  can  we  express  two  out  of  three 
parts?     By  putting  2  in  place  of  1." 

One-fourth  may  be  taught  in  the  same  way,  and  the 
fact  that  I  are  the  same  as  h  brought  out.  Finally,  develop 
the  fact  that  f  =  f  =  £ 

(i)  Lesson  in  Multiplication.  Material.  Toothpicks, 
blocks,  paper  discs.  Each  child  has  six  toothpicks  with 
which  to  begin. 

Method.  The  teacher  begins  by  asking  the  children  to 
count  the  toothpicks  they  have,  to  which  they  respond 
by  saying: 

"1.  2,  3.  4,  5.  6." 

"Count  them  by  twos." 
2,  4,  6. 

"How  many  groups  of  twos  have  you?" 

"We  have  three." 

"Then  three  twos  are  how  many?" 


First  Year  Number  Work  225 

"Three  twos  are  six." 

"How  many  times  must  we  take  two  to  make  six?" 

"Three  times  two  are  how  many?" 

"Three  times  two  are  six." 

"Put  your  toothpicks  together  again."  "Now  put 
them  into  groups  of  three  each."  "How  many  groups  of 
three  have  you?" 

"Two." 

"How  many  times  must  you  take  a  group  of  three  to 
make  six?" 

"Two  times." 

"Then  two  times  three  are  how  many?"     "Six." 

"Three  twos  are  how  many?"  "Six."  "Two  threes?" 
"Six." 

"Take  these  orange-colored  discs  and  count  them." 
(The  teacher  gives  each  child  eight.)  "How  many  have 
you?" 

"Eight." 

"Divide  them  into  groups  of  four.  How  many  groups 
have  you?" 

"Two." 

"Tell  me  how  many  times  we  find  a  group  of  four  in 
eight." 

"Two  times." 

"Then  two  times  four  are  how  many?" 

The  children  may  have  to  count  and  see. 

"  Now  separate  your  eight  into  groups  of  twos.  How 
many  twos  have  you?" 

"Four." 

"Four  twos  are  how  many?" 

"Eight." 

"Four  times  two  are  how  many?" 

"Eight." 

"Two  times  four  are  how  many?" 

"Eight." 

"Two  times  two  are  how  many?" 

"Four." 


226  Public  School  Methods 

"Three  times  two  are  how  many?" 

"Six." 

"You  may  write  that  at  the  board." 

The  children  write  3   times   2   are  6.     If  they  have  not 

had  the  word  times,  the  teacher  will  have  to  show  how  to 

write  it.     Later,  the  teacher  may  tell  the  class  that  there 

is  a  shorter  way  of  writing  times  and  show  them  the  sign 

X.     The  sign     ■=  may  be  substituted  for  are. 

"  Now  we  are  going  to  make  what  we  call  a  multiplica- 
tion table.     I  shall  begin  it  for  you."     Writes: 

2X2    = 

3X2    = 

4X2    = 

"John,   you  may  tell  us  what  this  one  equals."      (Points 

to  the  first.)    She  writes  the  answer  when  John  says  "four." 

The  other  answers  are  given  and  written. 

"  I  should  like  to  have  you  all  learn  this  little  table  now, 
and  then  when  we  want  to  know  how  many  four  times  two 
are  we  shall  not  have  to  stop  and  add  by  twos,  but  we  will 
think  of  our  table  and  know  at  once." 

The  perception  cards  recommended  for  work  in  addition 
and  subtraction  may  be  used  to  great  advantage  in  drill- 
ing on  multiplication  tables. 

Even  in  the  first  grade,  and  still  more  in  the  succeeding 
years,  a  time  limit  should  be  set  on  all  drill  work.  Within 
reasonable  limits  it  has  been  observed  that  rapid  calcula- 
tion contains  fewer  errors  than  very  slow  work.  For  this 
reason  an  effort  should  be  made  on  the  part  of  the  teacher 
to  encourage  rapid  work  by  the  children. 

Caution.  While  multiplication  has  its  beginning  in 
addition,  it  is  not  like  addition,  even  when  the  addition  of 
equal  numbers  is  considered.  In  addition,  the  whole  (sum) 
is  obtained  by  building  on  parts.  In  other  words,  the  whole 
is  an  aggregate  of  parts  that  have  been  put  together  one 
by  one;  as,  9,  6  and  5  are  20;  or,  19  and  1  are  20.  In  multi- 
plication, however,  the  mind,  by  the  powers  of  imagination 
and   reason,    passes    directly    from    the    consideration    ol    a 


First  Year  Number  Work  227 

certain  number  of  given  units  to  the  whole  (product)  formed 
by  these  units.  By  the  process  of  addition,  6  is  2  more 
than  4.  By  multiplication,  6  is  3  times  2.  Multiplication 
includes  the  factor,  or  times  idea,  and  psychologically  is  a 
long  step  in  advance  of  addition.  In  addition,  the  child 
considers  the  whole  and  the  part  added  to  it,  as  the  4  and 
2  in  6.  In  multiplication,  he  considers  the  relation  of  the 
three   2's  to  this  whole. 

(j)  Lesson  on  the  Use  of  the  Ruler.  As  early  in 
the  year  as  it  is  practical,  it  is  well  to  spend  a  few  lessons 
on  the  use  of  the  ruler.  The  teacher  must  explain  the  inch 
to  the  child  and  let  him  count  the  number  of  inches  in  his 
ruler.  Let  him  measure  his  books,  his  pencils  and  other 
objects.  Let  him  also  construct  a  paper  ruler  of  his  own. 
When  he  has  become  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  inch  as 
a  unit  of  measure,  show  him  the  half  and  quarter  inches 
and  let  him  measure  objects  and  construct  another  ruler 
showing  halves  and  quarters.  When  using  the  inch  as  a 
unit  of  measure,  explain  to  the  children  that  we  call  it  a 
unit  of  measure.  The  use  of  the  term  may  be  made  familiar 
to  them  in  this  way:  "We  measured  this  book  to  find  out 
the  number  of  inches  in  it.  We  said  that  one  inch  was  the 
unit  of  measure.  Suppose  we  measure  the  desk  to  find  out 
how  many  feet  there  are  in  it.  What  is  the  unit  of  measure? " 
"What  units  of  measure  does  a  storekeeper  use  in  measur- 
ing vinegar? "  "  In  weighing  butter? "  "  In  selling  potatoes?" 
"How  many  hours  in  a  day?"  "What  unit  of  measure- 
ment is  used?" 

(k)  Lesson  in  Counting  by  Tens.  Material.  Tooth- 
picks and  rubber  bands. 

Method.  "We  are  going  to  learn  to  count  by  tens  this 
morning.     What  shall  we  let  our  toothpicks  represent?" 

"Sticks  of  candy." 

"Very  well,  you  may  count  your  sticks  of  candy." 

"There  are  twenty." 

"Count  out  ten  and  put  a  rubber  band  around 
them." 


228 


Public  School  Methods 


1.  i- 

ONES 

% 

A 

\ 

A 

A 

\ 
** 

\ 

\ 

\ 

IP 

ZERO 

10 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

1 

II 

21 

31 

41 

51 

61 

71 

81 

91 

1 

12 

22 

32 

42 

52 

62 

72 

82 

92 

3 

13 

4 

14 

5 

15 

6 

16 

7 

17 

8 

18 

9 

19 

"Who  can  tell  us  at  the  board  how  many  sticks  in  the 
bundle?" 

A  child  writes  10. 

"Count  out  another  ten  and  put  a  band  around  them." 

"How  many  tens  have  you  now?" 


First  Year  Number  Work  229 

"Two  tens." 

"If  we  write  one  ten  thus  (pointing  to  the  board),  how 
shall  we  write  two  tens?" 

A  child  writes  it. 

"  In  two  bundles  of  tens  how  many  sticks  of  candy  are 
there?" 

"Twenty." 

Thus  by  counting  and  placing  in  bundles  of  ten,  the 
other  tens  are  taught.  In  the  first  lesson  the  children  can 
probably  reach  forty.  The  teacher  should  see  that  every 
child  realizes  by  actual  counting  that  four  tens  are  forty. 
After  the  tens  are  learned  they  may  serve  as  the  basis  for 
a  number  chart  such  as  is  shown  on  the  opposite  page. 

Have  the  children  fill  in  all  the  blanks.  Let  them  read 
across  the  page  and  down  the  page.  After  they  have  become 
familiar  with  the  name  units  and  are  familiar  with  tens, 
say  to  them,  "  In  eleven  there  are  eleven  units,  or  one  ten 
and  one  unit.  In  twenty-two  there  are  twenty-two  units, 
or  two  tens  and  two  units.  In  thirteen,  how  many  units? 
How  many  tens  and  units?  In  fourteen?  How  many  tens 
and  units  in  these  numbers?"  (Write  39,  36,  ^3.)  Let  the 
children  then  read  across  the  page,  thus:  12,  one  ten,  two 
units;  22,  two  tens  and  two  units;  32,  three  tens  and  two 
units;  42,  four  tens  and  two  units,  etc. 

Symbols.  Teachers  need  to  be  impressed  with  the  idea 
that  children  should  visualize  symbols  that  they  will  need 
in  practical  calculation.     It  is  better  to  drill  on 

5        10  5 

+5       -5       X2 

10  5         10 

than  upon  5+5  =10,  10-5  =5,  5  X2  =10,  since  the  latter 
are  never  used  in  calculation.  It  is  well  to  acquaint  the 
children  with  the  horizontal  arrangement,  but  the  perpen- 
dicular arrangement  is  the  one  which  should  appear  most 
often  before  the  eye. 

Caution      In  all  of  the  number  work  as  outlined  in  the 


230  Public  School  Methods 

preceding  illustrative  lessons,  the  teacher  must  bear  in 
mind  that  every  direction  which  she  gives  must  be  ex?ct; 
otherwise,  the  children  will  be  confused  and  little  good  will 
be  obtained  from  the  exercises. 

8.  Correlation  of  Number  Work  with  Other  Studies.  In 
teaching  primary  number,  a  great  deal  can  be  done  in 
connection  with  other  studies.  Number  work  may  be 
correlated  with  nature  study,  reading,  drawing  and  con- 
struction work,  games,  music,  and,  to  some  extent,  with 
every  other  subject.  To  illustrate,  in  construction  work, 
accurate  measurements  must  be  used,  in  science,  measure- 
ments to  show  the  growth  of  buds  and  twigs  are  taken; 
flower  charts  and  bird  charts  are  made,  necessitating  measur- 
ing and  numbering;  the  children  learn  to  read  the  ther- 
mometer and  tell  time;  in  reading,  Roman  numerals  in 
connection  with  the  lesson  are  learned,  and  the  children 
learn  to  tell  the  number  of  the  page.  A  thoughtful  teacher 
soon  becomes  skilful  in  correlating  number  work  with  other 
subjects. 

9.  Aids,  (a)  Books  for  Teachers.  Of  the  many  books 
on  number  work  to  be  recommended  for  the  teacher's  use, 
the  following  are  among  the  best: 

Rational  Elementary  Arithmetic.  Belfield  &  Brooks.  Scott, 
Foresman  &  Co.,  Chicago. 

Werner  Arithmetics.  F.  H.  Hall.  Books  I,  II  and  III.  Teacher's 
Handbook.     Arithmetic  Primer.     American  Book  Co. 

Primary  Public  School  Arithmetic.  Teacher's  Edition.  McLellan 
&  Ames.     Macmillan  Company. 

Public  School  A rithmetic  for  Grammar  Grades.    Macmillan  Company. 

A  Primary  Arithmetic.  Foi  Teachers.  William  W.  Speer.  Ginn 
&  Co. 

(b)  Number  Games.  In  the  history  of  the  world,  more 
people  have  learned  elementary  number  through  number 
games  than  in  the  public  school.  While  it  would  be  easy 
to  go  to  a  dangerous  extreme  in  this  matter,  the  play  element 
ought  to  be  utilized  to  a  great  extent  in  teaching  arithmetic 
to  primary  grades.  A  brief  bibliography  of  games  available 
for  number  work  is  as  follows: 


First  Year  Number  Work  231 

Education  by  Play  and  Games.  George  Ellsworth  Johnson.  Ginn 
&  Company. 

One  Hundred  and  Fifty  Gymnastic  Games.  S.  A.  Harper.  G.  H. 
Ellis  Co.,  Boston. 

Games  and  Songs  of  American  Children.  W.  W.  Newell.  Harper 
&  Brothers,  New  York. 

The  Book  of  Indoor  and  Outdoor  Games.  Kingsland.  Double- 
day,  Page  &  Co. 

TEST   QUESTIONS 

i.  Why  is  it  necessary  for  the  teacher  to  understand  the 
psychology  of  number?  To  what  extent  can  the  psychology 
be  learned  by  observing  children?     Illustrate. 

2.  In  the  act  of  counting,  the  child  begins  with  a  whole, 
analyzes  it  and  forms  a  new  whole.  How  does  the  second 
whole  differ  from  the  first?  Which  whole  will  the  child 
remember  the  longer?     Why? 

3.  What  special  preparation  should  you  make  for  teach- 
ing number  in  the  primary  grade? 

4.  Outline  a  plan  for  the  construction  of  a  number  chart. 
State  what  you  would  expect  to  gain  by  the  use  of  such 
a  chart. 

5.  Why  is  it  essential  that  the  pupils  do  the  work  in 
the  number  lessons?  Why  do  teachers  often  fail  to  secure 
the  desired  results  in  these  lessons? 

6.  Why  should  lessons  in  finding  parts  of  quantities, 
such  as  halves  and  fourths,  be  introduced  before  lessons  in 
multiplication?  Psychologically,  how  does  multiplication 
differ  from  addition? 

7.  Of  what  value  is  the  multiplication  table?  What 
danger  must  be  guarded  against  in  teaching  it? 

8.  How  long  should  objects  be  used  in  teaching  numbers? 
Give  reasons  for  your  answer. 

9.  With  what  other  lessons  can  you  correlate  number 
work?  Select  one  of  the  lessons  named  and  illustrate  how 
the  work  can  be  done. 

10.  Would  you  lay  special  stress  on  language  and  form 
in  the  number  lessons?     Why? 


CHAPTER  EIGHT 

SECOND  YEAR  NUMBER  WORK 

1.  The  Work  of  the  Second  Year.  As  a  rule,  no  book 
in  number  work  is  used  by  the  children  in  the  second  grade, 
but  number  facts  are  taught  in  the  same  manner  as  m  the 
first  grade.  During  the  second  year  the  pupils  are  supposed 
to  learn  the  number  facts  in  addition  and  substraction,  to 
and  including  nine  plus  nine ;  to  know  at  least  twelve  primary 
and  many  secondary  multiplication  facts,  with  the  related 
facts  of  division.  Complete  the  multiplication  facts  as  far 
as  recommended  on  page  244.  The  eye,  ear  and  tongue 
should  all  unite  in  the  mastery  of  this  work.  Teach  Roman 
notation  as  far  as  XII,  since  this  will  suffice  for  the  reading 
of  time  and  the  chapter  numbers  of  the  books  used  in  this 
grade. 

The  children  should  also  learn  the  relations  indicated 
by  h  I,  if,  etc.,  and  should  be  able  to  read  and  write  num- 
bers to  1000.  The  counting  begun  in  the  first  grade  should 
be  reviewed  and  continued.  Have  the  children  count  by 
3's  to  30,  by  4's  to  40,  by  5's  to  50,  and  so  on  until  they 
have  counted  by  io's  to  100.  The  measurements  learned  in 
the  first  grade  should  be  reviewed,  and  other  measurements, 
as  ounce,  pound,  minute,  hour,  day,  week  and  month,  should 
be  studied. 

2.  Facts  that  the  Teacher  Should  Remember.  It  is 
important  that  the  teacher  always  bear  in  mind  the  fact 
that  every  lesson  needs  thorough  preparation  before  being 
presented  to  the  class.  This  means  the  preparation  not 
only  of  the  teacher  herself,  but  the  preparation  of  the  chil- 
dren, also.  The  teacher  should  have  her  plan  for  teaching 
the  lesson  well  in  hand  before  coming  to  the  class;  if  any 
material  is  necessary,  it  should  be  ready;  and,  most  impor- 
tant of  all,  she  should  see  that  the  children  are  ready  for 
the  new  lesson.     Teachers  are  quite  apt  to  forget  this  point, 

232 


Second  Year  Number  Work  233 

especially  when  pupils  begin  using  arithmetics.  As  a  con- 
sequence, the  children  are  plunged  into  some  new  work 
with  no  preparation  whatever  for  it  and  stumble  along 
blindly,  when  a  lesson  or  two,  not  given  in  their  books,  per- 
haps, but  leading  up  to  the  new  work,  would  make  the 
whole  subject  perfectly  clear.  It  is  absolutely  necessary  for 
teachers  to  remember  this  and  look  ahead  for  work  that 
needs  especial  preparation.  Another  point  for  the  teacher 
to  remember  is  to  "make  haste  slowly."  Inasmuch  as  later 
number  work  depends  so  entirely  upon  the  earlier,  let  the 
foundation  be  a  solid  one.  What  is  done,  have  thoroughly 
done.  In  striving  for  this  thoroughness,  guard  against  slow, 
monotonous  drills.  To  be  sure,  drills  are  necessary,  but 
let  them  be  quick  and  interesting.  As  recommended  for 
the  first  grade,  a  time  limit  should  be  placed  on  all  drill 
work.  The  teacher  may  say,  "I  am  going  to  give  you  four 
minutes;  see  how  many  tables  you  can  write  in  that  time." 
"Let  us  see  how  long  it  will  take  us  to  count  by  2's,  3's, 
5's,"  etc.  Match  your  classes  in  this  work,  and  appeal  to 
emulation.  An  alert,  interested  teacher  will  do  much  toward 
securing  alertness  and  interest  on  the  part  of  her  classes. 

Pupils  who  are  dull  in  number  can  be  assisted  in  much 
the  same  way  as  pupils  who  are  dull  in  spelling,  by  calling 
upon  them  to  count  and  measure  whenever  such  work  will 
be  helpful  in  other  lessons.  While  these  pupils  should  not 
receive  more  than  their  share  of  attention  in  the  number 
class,  they  should  receive  whatever  extra  assistance  the 
teacher  is  able  to  give  them.  Otherwise,  they  are  liable 
to  form  a  distaste  for  number  work  and  never  become  pro- 
ficient in  it. 

3.  Order  of  Procedure.  There  has  been  considerable 
questioning  and  experimenting  in  regard  to  the  proper 
order  in  which  to  teach  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication 
and  division.  According  to  one  method,  the  processes  are 
to  be  taught  simultaneously;  for  instance,  a  certain  number, 
as  nine,  is  taken,  and  every  possible  combination  is  studied 
before   going   on   to   another   number.      The   addition    facts, 


234  Public  School  Methods 

the  subtraction,  the  multiplication  and  the  division  facts 
are  all  thoroughly  exhausted  before  a  new  number  is  taught. 
Another  method  puts  subtraction  and  division  before  addi- 
tion and  multiplication.  Another  teaches  addition,  then 
subtraction,  then  multiplication,  and  then  division.  What, 
then,  is  the  best  method  of  procedure? 

We  have  already  learned  that  the  origin  of  number  lies 
in  the  mind's  activity  in  measuring  quantity.  We  have 
learned  also  that  in  measuring  quantity,  our  measurements 
are  first  indefinite,  then,  later,  definite.  In  our  first,  indefinite 
measurements  we  express  results  as  more  or  less  than  some 
other  quantity.  John  is  taller  than  Sue,  Frank  has  more 
apples  than  Albert,  Elizabeth's  book  is  larger  than  Mabel's. 
In  reality,  when  we  are  getting  these  ideas  of  a  quantity 
more  or  less  than  some  other  quantity,  we  are  using  the 
processes  of  addition  and  subtraction.  When  comparing 
Frank's  apples  with  Albert's,  we  count  Frank's,  not  by 
number,  perhaps,  but  as  this  many  apples,  and  this  many, 
and  this  many.  What  is  this  but  addition?  We  then  count 
Albert's  and  compare,  discovering  that  Frank  has  more 
than  Albert.  We  have  now  subtracted.  So  we  see  that 
addition  and  subtraction  are  closely  related  processes,  and 
arise  even  before  the  mind  becomes  conscious  of  number 
ideas. 

In  the  process  of  finding  how  much  more  or  how  much 
less  one  quantity  is  than  another,  we  have  no  idea  what 
part  one  quantity  is  of  another,  or  of  their  difference.  This 
idea  arises  later  and  gives  us  the  processes  of  multiplication 
and  division.  It  is  an  idea  of  ratio  and  embraces  not  only 
the  processes  of  multiplication  and  division,  but  also  frac- 
tions, for  fractions  are  merely  the  expression  of  a  ratio. 
Three-fourths  means  the  ratio  of  three  to  four. 

If,  then,  we  would  deal  with  the  processes  of  arithmetic 
in  accordance  with  the  way  in  which  the  ideas  develop  in 
the  child's  mind,  we  must  take  them  in  this  order:  addi- 
tion, subtraction,  multiplication,  division.  It  must  not  be 
thought,  however,  that  we  must  deal  completely  with  one 


Seeond  Year  Number  Work  235 

process  before  going  on  to  the  next.  Every  process  is 
involved  in  every  other.  When  we  say  that  two  and  two 
make  four,  we  have  involved  also  the  idea  that  four  less 
two  are  two,  that  two  twos  are  four  and  that  four  divided 
by  two  are  two.  The  pupil  discovering  for  the  first  time 
that  two  and  two  are  four  may  not,  probably  will  not,  be 
conscious  that  four  less  two  are  two,  but  it  will  not  be  long 
until  he  is  conscious  of  the  fact,  and  gradually  the  idea  that 
two  times  two  are  four,  and  four  divided  by  two  are  two 
dawns  upon  him.  So  we  see  that  when  we  are  teaching 
addition  facts,  we  are  laying  the  foundation  for  subtraction, 
multiplication  and  division  facts.  The  operations  are  not 
separate  and  distinct,  but  contain  closely  interwoven  and 
dependent  processes. 

4.  Primary  Number  Facts.  There  are  certain  primary 
number  facts  which,  once  understood  and  memorized  by 
the  children,  do  away  with  much  needless  waste  of  time 
and  energy.  These  number  facts  should  be  thoroughly 
memorized,  always  bearing  in  mind  that  their  meaning 
must  first  be  clearly  perceived.  Of  these  number  facts,  there 
are  forty-five  primary  facts  of  addition  and  sixty-four  of 
multiplication.  Thirty- three  facts  of  addition  and  twelve 
of  multiplication  will  usually  be  grasped  by  the  pupil  before 
he  enters  the  third  grade.  Often  all  of  the  forty-five  addi- 
tion facts  are  mastered  in  the  first  and  second  grades.  The 
thirty-three  addition  facts  are  as  follows: 

1232434354264576 

ll1    111111    A    A    1    A    1    1    1 

774^"5^6~6"6^778888 
56789856797689867 

9  9  9  9  10  10  10  10  10  11  11  11  11  12  12  12  12 

These  addition  facts  carry  with  them  related  subtraction 
facts.    A  boy  who  knows  that  nine  and  two  are  eleven  should 


236 


Public  School  Methods 


also  perceive  that  eleven  less  two  are  nine,  and  eleven  less 
nine  are  two. 

The  twelve  multiplication  facts  that  second  grade  pupils 
should  know  are  the  following: 


2 

X   2 

=  4 

3 

X   2 

=  6 

2 

X  3 

=  6 

4 

X   2 

=  8 

3 

X  3 

-  9 

2X4 

=  8 

2   X  5 

-  10 

5 

X   2 

■=   IO 

4 

X3 

=    12 

3X4 

=  12 

2X6 

=  12 

6 

x2 

=   12 

These  multiplication  facts  involve  division  facts.  If  a 
pupil  knows  that  four  times  two  equal  eight,  he  will  also 
know  that  eight  divided  by  two  equals  four  and  eight  divided 
by  four  equals  two.  Once  these  facts  are  clearly  perceived 
and  memorized,  a  good  foundation  for  future  work  is  laid. 

5.  Devices,  (a)  Cards.  The  perception  cards  recom- 
mended for  first  year  work  in  addition,  subtraction  and 
multiplication  should  be  used  freely  for  drill  on  thirty-three 
facts  of  addition.     Give  much  drill  on  such  combinations 


as 


7    8    5    7    7    7 
5'  3'  3'  2'  4'  3' 


and    do    not    spend    time    drilling    on 


2    ■? 

the  simpler  combinations,  as    ,     ,  if  the  children  have  already 

mastered  them. 

(b)  Number  Circle.     The  following  device  may  be  used 


Second  Year  Number  Work  237 

for  drill  on  the  facts  of  addition.  Draw  a  large  circle  on 
a  12  x  14  inch  piece  of  white  tag  board,  or  other  suitable 
material.  On  the  circumference  of  the  circle  print  the 
numbers  from  1  to  10.  Cut  two  slits  in  the  center  of  the 
circle  large  enough  to  allow  a  16  x  2  inch  piece  of  tagboard 
to  be  drawn  through.  On  the  16x2  inch  piece  of  tagboard 
print  the  numbers  from  1  to  10  (about  two  inches  apart), 
and  draw  this  through  the  center  of  the  large  circle.  Drill 
by  combining  the  figure  in  the  center  with  any  number  of 
the  circle.  This  device  can  also  be  used  in  multiplication. 
6.  Illustrative  Lessons,  (a)  Addition.  Purpose  of  the 
lesson:    To  teach  the  number  facts  of  fourteen. 

7  +  7    =  14;     9  +  5    =  14;     8+6=14. 

Material.  Materials  needed  are  balls,  two  baskets,  and 
a  table  around  which  the  children  gather.  Marbles  or  other 
round  objects  may  be  used  in  place  of  balls. 

Method.  The  teacher  introduces  the  lesson  with  the 
following : 

"  I  have  a  puzzle  for  you  to  solve  this  morning,  but  before 
I  tell  you  what  it  is  I  want  you  to  count  these  balls." 

"There  are  fourteen." 

"John,  please  write  that  number  on  the  board,  so  that 
we  shall  be  sure  to  remember  it." 

The  number  is  written. 

"  I  am  going  to  call  these  balls  peaches,  and  here  is  the 
puzzle.  I  want  to  put  the  peaches  into  two  baskets  to  carry 
them  home.  Neither  basket  must  have  more  than  nine 
peaches.     How  shall  I  divide  them?" 

After  thinking  a  moment  or  two.  several  children  think 
they  can  divide  them. 

"Well,  Ruth,  you  may  put  them  in  the  baskets." 

Very  probably  Ruth  divides  the  peaches  evenly. 

"Class,  how  many  in  each  basket?" 

"Seven." 

"How  many  in  the  two  baskets  together?" 

"  Fourteen." 


238  Public  School  Methods 

"Fourteen  are  seven  and  how  many  more?" 

"Fourteen  are  seven  and  seven  more." 

"How  many  sevens  in  fourteen?" 

"There  are  two  sevens  in  fourteen." 

"Seven  and  seven  are  how  many?" 

"Seven  and  seven  are  fourteen." 

"Mary,  tell  us  that  at  the  board." 

Mary  writes,  "7  +  7    -  14." 

"Who  can  tell  us  now  two  facts  about  the  number 
fourteen?" 

"Seven  and  seven  are  fourteen." 

"Two  sevens  or  two  times  seven  are  fourteen." 

"This  is  the  way  we  write  it  when  we  say,  two  times 
seven  are  fourteen:  2  X  7  =  14.  You  see  it  is  just  another 
way  of  saying  this:     (Point  to  7  +  7    =14)." 

"  I  have  found  out  another  fact  about  fourteen  that  no 
one  has  mentioned.     Who  else  has  found  out  a  new  fact?" 

Possibly  no  one  has. 

"Suppose  that  I  take  one  basket  of  peaches  home  and 
leave  the  rest.     How  many  do  I  leave?" 

"Seven." 

"Then  what  else  do  we  know  about  fourteen?" 

"We  know  that  seven  taken  away  from  fourteen  leaves 
seven." 

"Yes.     Who  can  tell  it  in  a  different  way?" 

"Fourteen  less  seven  equals  seven." 

Here  give  a  quick  drill  as  follows:  "Two  sevens  are  how 
many?"  "Fourteen  less  seven  equal  how  many?"  Also  give 
concrete  problems  involving  facts  taught  concerning  14  and  7. 

"Perhaps  you  thought  my  puzzle  was  an  easy  one,  but 
I'm  not  through  yet.  Ruth  divided  the  peaches  by  putting 
seven  in  each  basket.  I  should  like  to  have  them  divided 
in  a  different  may.  Remember  that  neither  basket  is  to 
have  more  than  nine  peaches.     How  shall  we  divide  them?" 

After  thinking  a  moment  or  two,  some,  if  not  all,  of  the 
children  are  ready  to  try  to  divide  the  peaches  between 
the  two  baskets. 


Second  Year  Number  Work  239 

"Robert,  you  may  divide  them." 

Robert  divides  them  into  groups  of  six  and  eight.  They 
are  counted,  and  the  new  addition  fact,  6+8  =14,  is 
noted  and  written  on  the  board  under  the  first  addition  fact. 

The  related  subtraction  facts,  14  —  8  =6  and  14  -6  =8, 
are  brought  out  and,  if  desired,  written  in  a  separate  column. 

"We  have  found  two  ways  of  making  fourteen,  and 
now  if  you  can  find  one  more  way  you  will  have  solved  all 
of  my  puzzle." 

The  third  addition  fact,  9+5  =  14,  is  discovered  and 
the  related  subtraction  fa.cts,  14-9  -5  and  14-5  =9, 
are  brought  out.  These  new  facts  are  written  in  their  respec- 
tive columns,  and  the  addition  facts  are  memorized.  The 
pupil  will  see  that  if  9  +  5  =  14,  it  naturally  follows  that 
14—9  =5  and  14  -  5  =9,  so  the  subtraction  facts  do 
not  need  to  be  as  carefully  memorized  as  do  the  addition 
facts. 

Caution.  It  is  necessary  to  bear  in  mind  that  too  much 
must  not  be  attempted  at  a  time.  Drill  on  the  addition 
fact,  say,  9  +  5  =14,  and  the  related  subtraction  facts, 
before  you  attempt  to  teach  other  facts  concerning  14. 

Other  Facts.  Other  addition  facts  may  be  taught  in  the 
same  way  or  by  means  of  different  devices.  They  may  be 
learned  in  playing  store,  in  playing  games  or  in  measuring 
liquids.  A  good  way  to  teach  these  facts  is  by  construct- 
ing oblongs.  Let  the  first  one  contain  nine  square  inches, 
the  second,  five.  The  fact  that  nine  square  inches  and  five 
square  inches  make  fourteen  square  inches  is  readily  grasped. 
The  children  are  then  asked  to  draw  two  other  oblongs  of 
different  size  which  shall  together  contain  fourteen  square 
inches,  neither  oblong  to  contain  more  than  nine  square 
inches.  They  will  enjoy  puzzling  it  out.  The  teacher  should 
see  that  the  children  understand  that  the  nine  and  five, 
six  and  eight,  or  seven  and  seven  may  mean  birds,  apples, 
dollars,  bushels,  or  any  other  objects. 

Devices.  (1)  It  often  proves  an  aid  in  securing  rapid 
addition  to  have  the  children  add  by  tens,  in  the  following 


240  Public  School  Methods 

way:  Ask  the  class  to  count  by  tens,  beginning  with  seven: 
7,  17,  27,  37,  47,  57,  67,  77,  87,  97.  Write  the  numbers 
in  a  column.  Have  the  children  then  add  seven  to  each 
number,  writing  the  problems  and  results  in  a  column: 

7+7    =i4 
17+7    =24 

27  +  7    =  34,  etc. 

Lead  the  children  to  see  that  increasing  one  of  the  addends 
by  ten  increases  the  sum  by  ten.  Have  several  tables  made 
in  this  way;  as, 

4  +  4  -  8;  14  +  4  =  18;  24  +  4  =  28;  34  +  4  =  38,  etc. 
9+9    =  18;  19  +  9    =  28;  29  +  9    =  38;  39  +  9    -  48,  etc. 

(2)  When  the  sum  of  the  units  equals  ten,  as  in  adding 
67  and  43,  the  following  device  is  often  used.  Instead  of 
counting  first  units  and  then  tens,  count  thus:  Six  tens 
and  four  tens  make  ten  tens.  Seven  units  and  three  units 
make  ten  units,  or  one  ten.  Ten  tens  and  one  ten  make 
eleven  tens,  or  no.  Various  problems  may  be  put  on  the 
board  and  added  in  this  way.     To  illustrate: 

38  64  55 

22  3^  35 

(3)  The  following  will  illustrate  another  device  often 
used  in  adding  numbers,  the  sum  of  whose  units  equals 
ten.  In  the  problem  35  -f  15,  we  may  add  as  follows:  35, 
45,  S°-  35  +  1S  =  5°;  26  +  14:  26,  36,  40;  38  +  12:  38, 
48,  50;  34  +  16:    34,  44,  50. 

(4)  Unless  the  pupils  have  been  thoroughly  grounded 
in  the  fact  that  a  number,  as  14,  consists  of  a  certain  number 
of  tens  and  a  certain  number  of  units,  the  so-called  carrying 
process  will  be  a  bugbear  to  them.  They  must  clearly  recog- 
nize the  fact  that  72,  for  instance,  is  made  up  of  seven  tens 
and  two  units  before  they  can  understand  why  the  units 
must  go  in  one  column  and  the  tens  be  added  in  with  the 
next. 


Second  Year  Number  Work  241 

To  prepare  children  for  the  "carrying  process,"  devote 
a  few  minutes  of  the  recitation  period  to  such  exercises  as 
the  following:  "How  many  tens  in  twenty?"  "Name  the 
number  of  tens  and  fives  in  25."  "How  many  tens  in  29?" 
"How  many  over?"     "How  many  ones  in  29?" 

For  children  who  have  trouble  in  remembering  how 
many  tens  or  hundreds  were  to  be  added  to  the  tens  or 
hundreds,  a  simple  device,  as  here  shown,  may  be  used: 

(0 


14 

(2)    235 

16 

166 

18 

428 

15 

719 

43 

11 

2 

829 

63 

The  sum  of  the  units  column  in  (1)  is  23.  The  three  is 
written  under  the  units  column,  the  two  below  and  to  the 
left  of  three  in  the  tens  column.  The  tens  are  added,  and 
finally  the  partial  answers  are  added  together. 

In  performing  additions  where  one  number  is  "carried" 
from  one  order  to  the  next,  it  is  better  to  avoid  the  use 
of  the  word  carry.  If  the  process  is  made  perfectly  clear 
to  the    pupil,  he  will   not   need   the   word   carry,  nor   will 

the  teacher  need  to  use  it  in  her 
23452       explanations.        Some     work     in 

23451  simple  addition  of  figures  in  colums 

23452  can  be  introduced  here  to  advan- 
£  _3  _4  _5  ]_  tage.  For  instance,  the  children 
8       12       16       20         6       can  add  the  columns  shown  at  the 

left.  Teach  the  children  to  com- 
bine and  add  in  groups.  The  "  group  method"  in  addition  is 
a  labor  saving  device  and  leads  to  rapid  work. 

(b)  Subtraction.  Inasmuch  as  addition  facts  carry  with 
them  related  subtraction  facts,  children  find  little  difficulty 
in  subtracting  until  they  come  to  the  subtraction  of  numbers 
in  which  digits  of  the  subtrahend  exceed  digits  of  the  minuend. 


242  Public  School  Methods 

Let  us  consider  such  a  problem  for  a  moment.  We  will 
suppose  our  problem  to  be  34  -  18  =  ?.  Before  taking  up 
the  explanation  of  this,  what  previous  preparation  does  the 
understanding  of  such  a  problem  necessitate? 

The  children  long  ago  have  learned  the  form  of  sub- 
traction problems  illustrated  by  8-2  =6.  They  know 
that  the  problem  is  read  "eight  less  two  equal  six."  They 
have  worked  many  similar  problems  and  have  solved  with- 
out difficulty  problems  like  14-5  and  15-7.  If  they 
have  worked  with  sticks  tied  in  bundles  of  ten,  or  with 
dimes  and  pennies,  they  are  quite  aware  that  to  take  five 
from  fourteen  they  must  use  their  tens.  To  illustrate  more 
fully,  in  solving  the  problem  14—5,  the  pupils  select  one 
bundle  of  ten  sticks  and  four  separate  sticks.  As  there  is 
no  way  possible  in  which  they  can  take  five  from  four,  they 
must  untie  one  bundle  of  ten,  add  the  number  of  ones  con- 
tained to  the  four  ones  they  already  have,  and  then  sub- 
tract. In  later  work,  the  children  have  become  familiar 
with  the  form  of  problems  in  which  the  subtrahend  is  written 
under    the    minuend    and    the    subtraction    performed;    as, 

2426 

,       ,  etc.     As  in  addition,  they  learned  various  ways  of 

performing  these   subtractions.     They  learned  to   subtract 

by  tens  first;  as,  two  tens  less  one  ten  and  four  units  less 

one  unit;  and  also  to  subtract  thus:     24  less  12  equals  24 

less  10,  which  is  14,  less  2,  which  is  12.     For  the  sake  of 

the  form,  the  pupils  should  be  taught  also  to  subtract  units 

from  units  and  tens  from  tens.    All  of  this  work  now  serves 

as   preparation   for  their  new   problem,    34  —  18,   in   which 

the  eight  units  of  the  subtrahend  exceed  the  four  units  of 

the    minuend.      The    children    immediately    see    that    they 

cannot  take  eight  ones  from  four  ones.     The  problems  in 

which  they  had  to  take  a  bundle  of  ten  and  use  them  with 

their   ones   are   recalled   and   illustrated.     The   problem   in 

question  is  worked  out  by  means  of  bundles  of  ten  and 

34 
separate  sticks,  and  is  then  put  on  the  board  in  this  form:    xg 


Second  Year  Number  Work  243 

The  teacher  then  says  to  the  class,  "You  found  that 
you  could  not  take  eight  ones  from  four,  so  what  did  you  do? " 

"We  untied  one  bundle  of  ten  and  put  it  with  our  ones." 

"How  many  ones  or  units  did  you  then  have?" 

"We  had  fourteen." 

"Taking  your  eight  ones  from  fourteen  leaves  you  how 
many?" 

"It  leaves  six  ones." 

The  teacher  writes  six  in  the  units  place,  then  asks  the 
children  to  subtract  the  tens.  In  all  probability  the  children 
will  say  that  three  tens  less  one  ten  equal  two  tens,  in  which 
case  they  will  have  to  be  reminded  that  they  have  already 
taken  one  ten  away  from  their  three  tens.  Similar  problems 
should  be  given  and  the  results  verified  by  actual  use  of  the 
sticks,  or  by  dimes  and  pennies,  until  the  pupils  can  perform 
operations  with  figures  alone  and  secure  the  correct  result. 

(c)  Simple  Multiplication.  Before  taking  up  an  illus- 
trative lesson  in  multiplication,  let  us  again  call  attention 
to  the  difference  between  multiplication  and  addition.  It 
is  necessary  that  the  teacher  keep  the  psychological  proc- 
esses of  the  two  operations  distinctly  in  mind.  As  previously 
stated   (Caution,  page  226),  multiplication  is  not  addition. 

To  be  sure,  2+2+2  =6,  and  three  times  two  are  six, 
but  the  two  processes  differ.  In  the  first  we  begin  with  two 
and  keep  adding  two,  taking  no  heed  of  the  number  of 
times  two  is  added,  but  paying  attention  simply  to  the 
sum,  which  is  the  main  thing  we  desire  to  know.  In  the 
second  process  we  note  the  number  of  times  two  is  repeated 
to  get  six.  Here  a  factor  idea  is  present.  Three  and  two 
are  factors  of  six.  While  multiplication  is  implied  in  the 
act  of  addition,  at  the  same  time  it  differs  from  it  in  taking 
cognizance  of  the  number  of  times  a  factor  is  repeated. 
Pupils  should  become  familiar  with  this  factor  idea  quite 
early.  When  they  have  discovered  that  three  times  two 
are  six,  and  two  times  three  are  six,  the  teacher  should  tell 
them  that  three  and  two  are  called  factors  of  six  and  ask 
them  to  give  factors  of  other  numbers. 


244 


Public  School  Methods 


Children  in  the  second  grade  may  reasonably  be  expected 
to  master  the  following  multiplication  facts: 


2X2 

-     4 

2X3 

=     6 

2X4=8 

2   x5 

=  10 

3   X  2 

=    6 

3    ><3 

=    9 

3    X  4    =12 

2X6 

=   12 

4X2 

=    8 

4X3 

=  12 

5     X   2 

=  10 

6X2 

=  12 

Properly  taught,  these  twelve  facts  will  carry  with  them 
division  facts.  If  5  X2  =10,  a  child  should  realize  that 
ten  is  five  twos  or  two  fives;  that  is,  10  -f-  2  =5,  and  10  ~ 
5  =2.  Even  in  the  first  grade  the  pupils  can  form  little 
multiplication  tables  of  their  own  and  memorize  them.  As 
they  grow  older  and  are  able  to  make  more  and  more  difficult 
tables,  they  should  thoroughly  master  each  table.  Sugges- 
tions have  already  been  made  for  teaching  multiplication 
facts,  but  the  following  will  illustrate  other  devices. 

Material.  Drawings  which  have  been  made  previously 
in  the  construction  period  or  as  seat  work  may  serve  as 
material.      Each   child  has  seven   or  eight  drawings,   num- 


1 


2  3 


bered  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  on  one  large  sheet  of  paper.  These 
drawings  are  groups  of  square  inches.  The  first  contains 
four  square  inches,  the  second  eight,  the  third  twelve,  etc. 


Second  Year  Number  Work  %4>5 

Method.  The  teacher  opens  the  lesson  by  saying,  "  You 
made  some  drawings  yesterday  which  I  said  we  would  use 
today  in  our  number  work.  From  these  drawings  we  are 
going  to  form  the  table  of  fours."  (The  children  have 
already  had  some  experience  in  making  tables.)  "  Look 
carefully  at  the  first  drawing.  Does  it  tell  you  anything 
about  the  number  four?" 

"There  are  four  square  inches  in  it." 

"True,  but  does  it  tell  you  nothing  else?" 

In  all  probability  some  one  will  discover  that  four  ones 
are  four.     If  no  one  does,  the  fact  must  be  developed. 

"What  was  your  unit  of  measure  in  this  figure?" 

"One  square  inch." 

"How  many  times  was  one  square  inch  repeated  to  get 
the  figure?" 

"Four  times.'* 

"Then  what  does  the  figure  tell  us?" 

"It  tells  us  that  one  square  inch  taken  four  times  gives 
four  square  inches." 

"Ruth,  Mary,  Amy  and  Helen  may  rise.  Class,  how 
many  times  did  I  choose  one  girl?" 

"Four  times." 

"Four  times  one  are  how  many?" 

"Four." 

"Who  can  tell  us  that  at  the  board?" 

A  child  writes,  "Four  times  one  are  four." 

"Who  can  tell  it  in  a  different  way?" 

Some  child  writes,  "4X1    =  4." 

"You  may  all  write  that  under  your  first  drawing.  We 
have  discovered  the  first  fact  for  our  table.  See  now  whether 
you  can  find  out  a  new  fact  from  your  second  drawings:" 

The  children  readily  discover  that  two  fours  are  eight 
and  four  twos  are  eight.  "4  X  2  =  8 "  is  written  under 
the  second  figure. 

In  this  way  the  other  multiplication  facts  are  found, 
the  children  discovering  that  each  new  fact  may  be  found 
by  adding  four  to  the  preceding  product.     When  the  table 


246  Public  School  Methods 

is  complete  to  4  X  12,  it  is  thoroughly  memorized  before 
going  on.  Simple  problems  may  be  given;  as,  "If  Henry 
had  eight  apples  and  Kenneth  four  times  as  many,  how 
many  had  Kenneth?  If  Mabel  had  four  apples  and  Ruth 
eight  times  as  many,  how  many  had  Ruth?"  In  place  of 
drawing  square  inches,  the  children  may  draw  groups  of 
apples,  of  birds  or  balls.  The  lessons  may  be  varied  by 
teaching  some  of  the  tables  by  means  of  the  children  them- 
selves. A  group  of  five  children  stands  and  the  fact  that 
five  times  one  are  five  is  discovered.  Five  groups  of  two 
each  gives  five  times  two  are  ten;  five  groups  of  three  each, 
five  times  three  are  fifteen,  etc. 

Another  simple  device  for  teaching  the  multiplication 
table  of  5's  is  to  have  the  children  write  the  products  in 
columns,  as 

5 
10 
15,  etc. 

Then  ask,  "How  many  5's  in  10?"  Say,  "We  can  write 
it  this  way,  2X5=  10."  "How  many  5's  in  15?"  "This 
is  another  way  of  saying  there  are  three  5's  in  15,  3  X5  =15." 
Let  the  children  complete  the  table,  and  drill.  When  one 
table  is  thus  made  and  understood,  make  another  changing 
the  order  of  factors.  Instead  of  writing  4  X2  =8,  4  X3 
=  12,  a  x  5  =  20,  let  them  write  2  X4  =8,  3  X4  =12, 
5   X  4   =20. 

Cautions.  (1)  Most  children  will  learn  to  repeat  the 
multiplication  tables  with  little  effort.  The  combinations 
constitute  a  sort  of  jingle  which  they  like  to  memorize. 
It  is  therefore  essential  that  every  number  fact  in  a  table 
exist  in  each  child's  mind  as  a  reality  before  the  class  begins 
learning  the  table  in  the  ordinary  way. 

(2)  Products  in  the  multiplication  tables  should  be 
learned  both  ways,  i.e.,  4X2  =8,  2  X4  =8.  Continue 
reciting  the  tables  aloud  and  in  chorus,  for  this  leads  to  ear 
and  tongue  memory,  which  may  come  to  the  aid  of  the  eye 


Second  Year  Number  Work  247 

when  trying  to  recall  a  fact.  After  learning  4X2  =8, 
2  X  4  •=  8,  ask,  "What  number  multiplied  by  2  =8?" 
"What  number  multiplied  by  4    =  8,"  etc. 

(d)  Multiplication  Involving  the  "Carrying" 
Process.  When  the  children  are  ready  for  the  multiplica- 
tion of  numbers  which  involves  the  carrying  process,  little 
difficulty  need  be  encountered,  if  the  difference  between 
tens  and  units  be  kept  carefully  in  mind.  For  instance,  in 
the  problem  24  multiplied  by  4,  since  the  children  know 
that  24  is  made  up  of  two  tens  and  four  units,  and  that  four 
times  four  units  give  sixteen  units  or  one  ten  and  six  units, 
they  will  readily  understand  that  the  tens  must  be  added 
in  with  the  product  of  four  times  two  tens.  If  they  get 
confused  and  think  that  the  one  ten  must  be  added  to  the 
first  two  and  then  multiplied  by  four,  let  the  children  for 
a  while  write  the  answer  as  shown  at  the  right.  This  24 
form,  however,  should  be  dispensed  with  as  quickly  as  _4 
possible,  so  that  there  will  be  no  confusion  when  prob-  16 
lems  with  two  figures  in  the  multiplier  are  reached.  8_ 
The  term  carrying  should  be  avoided,  just  as  it  was  96 
in  addition. 

(e)  Multiplication  of  Numbers  in  Which  the  Mul- 
tiplier Consists  of  Two  Figures.  Let  34  multiplied  by 
24  be  an  illustrative  problem.  This  lesson  should  be  pre- 
ceded by  a  rapid  test  in  reading  such  numbers  as  1276,  62, 
372,  580,  52  tens,  59  units,  4271,  giving  the  units,  tens, 
hundreds  and  thousands. 

The  teacher  then  says,  "We  have  often  multiplied  a 
number  by  one  figure,  but  never  by  two.  Now  we  are  going 
to  learn  how  to  multiply  a  number  by  another  number  with 

two  figures.     Here  is  our  problem."     The  teacher  writes 

24 

and  reads,   "Thirty-four  multiplied  by  twenty-four."     "In 

34,  how  many  tens  and  how  many  units,  Mary?" 

"There  are  three  tens  and  four  units." 

"In  24,  how  many  tens  and  how  many  units,  Harry?" 

"There  are  two  tens  and  four  units." 


248  Public  School  Methods 

"The  first  thing  we  must  do  is  to  multiply  thirty-four 
by  the  units  in  twenty-four,  which  are — how  many  units, 
Bessie?" 

"Four  units." 

"Rachel,  multiply  thirty-four  by  four  units  for  us." 

"Four  times  four  are  sixteen,  or  one  ten  and  six  units. 
Four  times  three  are  twelve,  and  one  ten  more  makes  it 
thirteen.  Thirty-four  multiplied  by  four  equals  one  hun- 
dred thirty- four." 

The  teacher  writes  134  i*1  its  place. 

"We  have  now  multiplied  thirty-four  by  four  units. 
What  is  there  left  for  us  to  multiply  by  if  we  are  to  mul- 
tiply by  twenty- f our  ? " 

"Two  tens." 

"Two  tens  are  the  same  as  how  many  units?" 

"Twenty  units." 

"Very  well.  Let  us  call  the  two  tens  twenty  units  for 
the  present.  Multiply  thirty-four  by  twenty  units  for  me. 
Twenty  times  four  units  equal  how  much?" 

"Eighty  units." 

"Eighty  units  are  the  same  as  how  many  tens?" 

"Eight." 

"Where  shall  we  write  eight  tens?  In  the  units'  column 
or  tens'  column?" 

"In  the  tens'  column." 

It  is  written. 

"Twenty  times  three  tens  equal  how  much?" 

"Sixty  tens." 

"Who  can  write  sixty  tens  for  me?" 

Some  one  writes  60. 

"Class,  is  that  sixty  tens?" 

"No.     It  is  six  tens." 

"Well,  some  one  write  sixty  tens." 

600  is  written. 

"Is  that  sixty  tens?" 

"Yes." 

"What  is  another  name  for  it?" 


Second  Year  Number  Work  249 

"Six  hundred." 

"Since  it  is  the  same  as  six  hundred,  where  must  we 
put  the  six?     In  units',  tens'  or  hundreds'  column?" 

"  Hundreds." 

It  is  written. 

"We  know  now  what  thirty-four  multiplied  by  foui 
is,  and  what  thirty-four  multiplied  by  twenty  is.  Can  any 
one  tell  us  what  we  must  do  to  find  out  what  thirty-four 
multiplied  by  twenty  and  four  together  equals?" 

Cautions,  (i)  Do  not  allow  any  guessing.  Unless  some 
child  has  been  quick  enough  to  see,  simply  tell  the  class  that  the 
products  must  be  added.  Work  very  slowly  with  these  prob- 
lems and  work  out  a  good  many  with  the  class  before  giving 
the  pupils  any  to  do  alone.  In  a  short  time  they  will  not 
need  to  think  of  the  tens  as  so  many  units,  but  can  multiply 
by  tens  directly  and  put  the  product  in  the  right  place. 

(2)  Failure  to  secure  accurate  results  is  often  due  to 
advancing  the  work  too  rapidly.  The  pupils  should  be 
given  a  large  number  of  problems  of  about  the  same  degree 
of  difficulty  before  any  more  difficult  are  attempted,  and 
the  steps  from  one  class  of  problems  to  the  next  should 
be  very  slight.  The  best  results  are  secured  when  the  pupils 
thoroughly  master  the  form  and  method  before  they  are 
called  upon  to  perform  multiplications  that  require  them 
to  give  most  of  their  attention  to  the  process. 

(3)  A  point  often  overlooked  by  teachers  is  that  combi- 
nations of  odd  numbers  are  more  difficult  than  those  of 
even  numbers.  In  preparing  tables  for  drills  this  should 
be  kept  constantly  in  mind,  and  those  combinations  should 
be  presented  upon  which  the  pupils  need  the  most  practice. 
Watchfulness  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  will  enable  her 
to  determine  what  these  are.  There  is  great  danger  of  fall- 
ing into  a  rut  and  using  the  same  combinations  over  and 
over.  To  children,  an  old  truth  is  always  new  when  pre- 
sented in  a  new  light.  Frequently  change  your  drill  exer- 
cises, even  though  they  include  the  same  numbers  and  com- 
binations that  you  have  been  using. 


250  Public  School  Methods 

(4)  Bear  in  mind  that  the  skill  attained  in  this  work 
depends  to  a  large  degree  on  how  well  the  multiplication 
tables  are  known.  If  children  stumble  over  multiplication 
facts,  and  are  not  especially  troubled  with  mastering  the 
process,  discontinue  the  work  on  the  process  and  drill  on 
the  multiplication  tables. 

(f)  Division.  The  work  in  multiplication  leads  directly 
to  the  work  in  division.  If  we  know  that  7  X  6  =  42,  we 
also  know  that  42  -r  7    =6  and  42  -r  6    =7. 

Material.  An  apple  or  some  other  object  that  can  easily 
be  divided  into  equal  parts  may  be  used. 

Method.  This  lesson  presupposes  a  knowledge  of  the 
table  of  twos,  also  the  fact  that  two  numbers  multiplied 
together  to  produce  a  product  are  called  the  factors  of  that 
product.     The  teacher  says: 

"  How  many  of  these  little  folks  have  brothers  and  sisters? " 
(Many  have.)  "Well,  you  all  have  playmates  if  you  have 
not  brothers  and  sisters.  Did  you  ever  have  candy  and 
divide  it  with  your  little  brother  or  playmate?" 

"Yes." 

"  Well,  who  can  tell  me  what  it  means  to  '  divide '  a  thing? " 

"It  means  to  give  part  of  it  to  somebody  else." 

"Yes,  but  could  you  divide  a  thing  and  give  both  parts 
away?" 

"Yes." 

"Could  we  divide  a  thing,  candy,  for  instance,  into  more 
than  two  parts?" 

"Yes." 

"Yes,  we  could  divide  it  into  any  number  of  parts." 

"John,  divide  this  apple  into  two  parts." 

The  apple  is  divided. 

"Ruth,  divide  these  pennies  among  three  boys." 

The  pennies  are  divided. 

"  I  see  now  that  you  understand  what  it  means  to  divide, 
and  this  morning  we  are  going  to  learn  to  divide  with 
numbers." 

The  children  long  ago  became  familiar  with  the  process 


Second  Year  Number  Work  251 

of  division  both  without  numbers  and  with  small  numbers, 
but  they  do  not  know  the  process  under  the  name  of  division. 
To  insure  a  perfect  grasp  of  the  meaning  of  the  word  divide, 
the  foregoing  preparation  is  given.  First,  have  a  little  review 
of  some  facts  already  learned. 

The  teacher  says,  "John,  tell  us  the  factors  of  six." 

"Two  and  three  are  the  factors  of  six." 

The  teacher  then  asks  of  various  pupils,  "Two  and  four 
are  factors  of  what  number?" 

"  Eight." 

"Two  and  six?" 

"Twelve." 

"Seven  and  two?" 

"Fourteen." 

"Ten  and  two?" 

"Twenty." 

"Two  and  eleven?" 

"Twenty-two." 

"Two  is  one  factor  of  eight.    What  is  the  other?" 

"Four." 

"Seven  is  one  factor  of  fourteen.     What  is  the  other?" 

"Two." 

"Six  is  one  factor  of  twelve.     What  is  the  other?" 

"Two." 

"Two  is  one  factor  of  twelve.     What  is  the  other?" 

"Six." 

"If  two  balls  cost  twelve  cents,  what  will  one  ball  cost?" 

"Six  cents." 

"If  four  is  one  factor  of  eight,  what  is  the  other?" 

"Two." 

"If  four  apples  cost  eight  cents,  what  will  one  apple 
cost?" 

"Two  cents." 

"If  two  apples  cost  eight  cents,  what  will  one  apple  cost?" 

"Four  cents." 

"What  are  the  factors  of  ten?" 

"Two  and  five." 


252  Public  School  Methods 

"Divide  these  marbles  into  groups  of  five."  (The  teacher 
gives  ten  marbles  to  each  child  and  they  are  divided.) 

"Ten  marbles  divided  into  groups  of  five  give  how 
many  groups?" 

"Two  groups." 

"Divide  the  marbles  into  two  groups.  How  many  have 
you  in  each  group?" 

"Five." 

"  If  you  had  ten  apples  and  divided  them  equally  among 
five  boys,  how  many  would  each  get?" 

"Two." 

"If  you  had  ten  apples  and  divided  them  among  two 
boys,  how  many  would  each  get?" 

"Five." 

"How  many  fives  in  ten?" 

"Two." 

"How  many  twos  in  ten?" 

"Five." 

"Ten  of  anything  divided  into  five  parts  gives  how  many 
in  each  part?" 

"Two." 

"We  have  a  short  way  of  saying  this.  We  say,  'Ten 
divided  by  five  equals  two.'  I  will  write  it  for  you  on  the 
board."  (The  teacher  writes  it.)  "Who  can  tell  me  now 
what  ten  divided  by  two  equals?" 

"Five." 

"What  do  we  mean  when  we  say,  'Ten  divided  by  two 
equals  five'  ?" 

"We  mean  that  ten  things  divided  into  two  parts  makes 
five  in  each  part." 

"What  are  the  factors  of  eight?" 

"Two  and  four." 

"Eight  divided  by  four  equals  what?" 

"Two." 

"Eight  divided  by  two  equals  what?" 

"Four." 

"Two  and  six  are  factors  of  what  number?" 


Second  Year  Number  Work  253 

"Twelve." 

"Twelve  divided  by  two  equals  what?" 

"Six." 

"Twelve  divided  by  six  equals  what?" 

"Two." 

"I  am  going  to  show  you  a  still  shorter  way  of  telling 
this."  The  teacher  writes  on  the  board,  "12  -4-  2  -  6." 
"The  little  sign  (pointing  to  it)  is  just  another  way  of  say- 
ing 'divided  by.'  It  means  the  same  thing."  "You  may 
all  make  the  sign  on  the  board."  "You  may  write  on  the 
board  the  factors  of  14."  (2  and  7.)  "Fourteen  divided 
by  two  equals  what?" 

"Seven." 

"Write  on  the  board  14  -4-  2    =  7." 

Various  other  problems  are  given  to  familiarize  the  chil- 
dren with  the  work.  Occasionally  the  children  are  requested 
to  read  their  work.  The  lessons  may  proceed  in  this  manner 
until  the  children  are  ready  for  a  new  form  of  writing  prob- 

..   .  .  .      2)20    2)22 

lems  in  division;  that  is,      — ,       — ,  etc. 

10        11 

The  children  presumably  have  had  the  form  20-7-2  =10, 
and  are  told  that  this  is  merely  a  new  way  of  writing  it. 
As  a  preparation  for  this  work  in  short  division,  the  children 
read  numbers,  giving  the  units,  tens  and  hundreds;  as,  62 
equals  six  tens  and  two  units;  624  equals  six  hundreds,  two 
tens  and  four  units.  For  the  first  work  no  numbers  are 
given  which  are  not  exactly  divisible  by  the  number  used 
as  the  divisor. 

Short  Division.  A  list  of  problems,  such  as  20  -r  2  =10, 
14  -4-  7    =  ?,   20  -5-  10    =  ?,  is  written  on  the  board. 

The  teacher  then  says:  "Amy,  read  the  first  problem 
and  give  the  answer." 

"Twenty  divided  by  two  equals  ten." 

"May,  read  the  next  one." 

"Fourteen  divided  by  seven  equals  two." 

All  of  the  problems  are  read. 

"This  morning,"  the  teacher  remarks,  "we  are  going  to 


254  Public  School  Methods 

learn  how  to  write  these  problems  in  a  new  and  very  easy 
way  and  in  a  way  that  will  help  us  work  harder  problems." 

2)20 
The  teacher  writes:         — .     "This  is  just  another  way  of 

10 

10)20 
saying  20    -f-    2     -    10."     "This  [writes         — ]  says  what, 

Frank?" 

"Twenty  divided  by  ten  equals  two." 

"Twelve  divided  by  four  equals  what?" 

"Three." 

"Who  can  come  to  the  board  and  write  that  in  the  new 
way?" 

Some  one  writes  it. 

"Who  can  write  sixteen  divided  by  two  and  give  the 
answer?" 

Many  problems  are  given,  so  that  the  class  become 
familiar  with  the  new  form. 

"I  have  a  much  harder  problem  for  you  now."  "I  have 
sixty-four  oranges  and  want  to  divide  them  among  two 
boys  and  find  how  many  each  boy  will  get."  As  she  talks 
the  teacher  writes  2)64.  "There  is  a  very  easy  way  of  find- 
ing out."  "  Harry,  how  many  tens  and  how  many  ones  in 
this  number  (pointing  to  64)?" 

"Six  tens  and  four  ones." 

"We  must  divide  this  number  by  two.  First,  let  us 
divide  the  tens  by  two.  Six  tens  divided  by  two  equals 
what,  Mabel?" 

"Three." 

"Three  what?" 

"Three  tens." 

"I  will  write  the  three  tens  directly  under  the  six  tens. 
Now  let  us  divide  our  ones  by  two.  WTalter,  you  may  divide 
them." 

"Four  ones  divided  by  two  equals  two  ones." 

"We  will  write  our  ones  directly  under  our  ones.  How 
many  oranges  did  each  boy  get?" 

"Thirty-two." 


Second  Year  Number  Work  255 

"  Frances,  read  the  problem." 

"Sixty-four  divided  by  two  equals  thirty-two." 

"What  are  the  factors  of  sixty-four?" 

"Two  and  thirty-two." 

One  or  two  more  problems  are  worked  out  in  this  way; 
then  the  pupils  work  some  without  assistance.  By  having 
the  factors  read  and  recalling  the  fact  that  the  factors  mul- 
tiplied together  give  the  number  divided,  the  children  readily 
learn  to  prove  the  correctness  of  their  answers.  Problems 
involving  hundreds,  as  646,  are  introduced  and  solved,  but 
not  until  a  large  number  of  problems  whose  dividends  con- 
tain only  tens  and  units  have  been  solved.  Later,  when 
problems  whose  divisors  contain  two  numbers  are  intro- 
duced, the  teacher  must  explain  carefully  the  reason  for  the 
trial  divisor,  explaining  also  why  it  is  called  a  trial  divisor. 

Cautions.  (1)  While  division  originates  in  subtraction, 
it  is  a  different  process.  As  in  multiplication,  the  mind,  by 
use  of  the  imagination  and  reason,  measures  the  number 
(dividend)  and  arrives  at  once  at  the  result  (quotient).  The 
factor,  or  times,  idea  is  prominent  in  the  mental  process 
and  is  used  in  measuring  the  whole  (dividend)  by  the  part 
given  (divisor),  as  in  dividing  25  by  5.  The  question  is, 
how  many  5's  in  25;  not,  how  many  times  can  5  be  sub- 
tracted from  25 ?  The  relation  of  the  measuring  unit,  or 
divisor,  to  the  whole  is  at  once  apparent.  Since  the  factor 
idea  is  developed  in  multiplication,  division  can  easily  follow 
multiplication. 

(2)  Fractions  treat  of  the  division  of  objects  into  parts, 
and  at  first  deal  with  the  concrete.  This  division  of  objects 
into  equal  parts  is  much  easier  for  the  child  than  is  measur- 
ing one  number  by  another,  or  division ;  therefore,  elementary 
work  in  fractions  should  precede  division. 

(3)  With  the  introduction  of  the  factor,  or  times,  idea 
in  multiplication,  we  also  introduce  the  idea  of  ratio.  As 
soon  as  the  child  understands  that  3  times  2  are  6,  he  knows 
that  there  are  three  2*s  in  6,  and  as  soon  as  he  understands 
what  a  fraction  is,  he  recognizes  the  fact  that  2  is  one-third 


256  Public  School  Methods 

of  6.  From  this  it  is  an  easy  step  to  the  ratio,  or  proportion, 
idea,  that  the  ratio  of  2  to  6  is  $. 

(4)  Multiplication,  division,  fractions,  and  ratio  and  pro- 
portion all  involve  the  ratio  idea,  but  in  each  process  it  is 
considered  from  a  different  viewpoint — in  multiplication  as 
a  factor  to  be  used  in  finding  a  given  sum;  in  division,  as  a 
unit  of  measure. 

7.  Illustrative  Lessons  in  Fractions,  (a)  A  Lesson  to 
Develop  the  Rule  for  Finding  a  Fraction  of  Any 
Number.  Material.  Three  paper  rulers,  six  inches,  nine 
inches  and  twelve  inches  long,  for  each  child.  The  inches 
are  to  be  marked  off  on  each  ruler.  The  rulers  can  be  made 
during  the  construction  or  seat  work  period. 

Method.     The  teacher  opens  the  lesson  by  saying: 

"Divide  your  six-inch  ruler  into  three  parts."  "Show 
me  one  third."  "Two  thirds."  "Three  thirds."  "Three 
thirds  equals  what  part  of  the  ruler?"  "Divide  your  nine- 
inch  ruler  into  thirds."  "Show  me  two  thirds."  "Show 
me  one  third."  "Divide  your  twelve-inch  ruler  into  thirds." 
"Show  me  one  third."  "Three  thirds."  "Show  me  one 
third  of  this  ribbon."  (Hands  a  ribbon  of  any  length  to 
some  child.)  "Show  me  one  third  of  this  apple."  "Show 
me  again  one  third  of  the  six-inch  ruler."  "How  many 
inches  is  it?" 

"Two." 

"Tell  me  in  a  complete  sentence  how  many  one  third  of 
six  inches  is." 

"One  third  of  six  inches  is  two  inches." 

"Find  two  thirds  of  six  inches." 

"Four  inches." 

"What  is  one  third  of  six  inches  plus  one  third  of  six 
inches?"     "How  many  inches  is  it?" 

"What  is  one  third  of  six  inches  plus  two  thirds  of  six 
inches?"     "How  many  inches  is  it?" 

"Find  one  third  of  your  nine-inch  ruler.  How  many 
inches  is  it?"  "How  many  inches  in  two  thirds  of  nine 
inches?"     "In  three  thirds  of  nine  inches?"     "How  many 


Second  Year  Number  Work  257 

balls  is  one  third  of  nine  balls?"  "How  many  inches  in 
one  third  of  twelve  inches?"  "In  two  thirds?"  "In  three 
thirds?"     "Show  me  one  third  of  your  six-inch  ruler." 

"Two  thirds  is  how  many  times  as  long  as  one 
third?" 

"Twice  as  long." 

"Show  me  one  third  of  the  ribbon."  "Two  thirds  is 
how  many  times  as  long?"  "Show  me  one  third  of  the 
apple."  "Two  thirds  is  how  many  times  as  much?"  "If 
we  know  what  one  third  of  a  thing  is,  how  can  we  find  two 
thirds?"  "How  can  we  find  three  thirds?"  "How  did  you 
find  one  third  of  your  rulers?" 

"We  folded  it  into  three  parts." 

"How  did  you  find  one  third  of  the  apple?" 

"We  cut  it  into  three  parts." 

"How  do  you  find  one  third  of  anything?" 

"Divide  it  into  three  parts." 

"How  do  you  find  one  third  of  six?" 

"Divide  it  into  three  parts  and  take  one." 

"  In  other  words,  you  divided  six  by  three."  "  How  can 
you  find  one  third  of  nine,  then?" 

"Divide  nine  by  three." 

"How  can  you  find  one  third  of  any  number?" 

"Divide  it  by  three." 

"If  we  find  one  third  of  a  number  by  dividing  by  three, 
how  can  we  find  one  fourth  of  a  number?"  "One  fifth?" 
"One  sixth?"     "One  tenth?"     "One  twentieth?" 

"Who  can  tell  us,  then,  what  one  fourth  of  eight  is?" 
"One  fifth  of  ten?"  "One  sixth  of  twelve?"  "One  third 
of  twenty-four ? "  "One  third  of  eighteen?"  "One  fourth 
of  twenty?" 

The  same  method  may  be  followed  until  the  children 
clearly  see  that  to  find  a  fraction  of  a  number  we  must 
divide  that  number  by  the  number  representing  the  part 
required,  or  the  denominator  of  that  fraction,  and  that  if 
one  part  is  found,  two  parts  will  be  twice  as  much,  three 
parts  three  times  as  much,  etc.     After  the  work  has  been 


258  Public  School  Methods 

clearly  grasped,  it  would  be  well  to  let  the  children  form,  in 
their  own  words,  a  rule  for  finding  a  part  of  any  number. 

Devices.  It  is  very  necessary  in  this  grade  to  make  much 
use  of  objective  work  in  teaching  fractions.  Elaborate 
fraction  disks  are  not  at  all  necessary  for  this  work;  in  fact, 
it  is  better  to  take  any  simple  material  at  hand,  such  as 
clay  cubes,  paper,  chalk,  etc. 

Addition  of  figures  in  columns  was  demonstrated  on 
page  241.  From  this  work  it  is  very  easy  to  see  that  £  of 
8  is  two  2's,  or  4;  that  \  of  12  is  3;  that  f  of  16  are  3  fours, 
or  12,  etc.  Children  delight  in  discovering  such  truths, 
and  a  device  of  this  kind  adds  to  the  interest  in,  and  clear 
comprehension  of,  the  subject. 

(b)  A  Lesson  to  Develop  the  Relation  Between 
Fourths  and  Eighths.  This  lesson  presupposes  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  relation  between  fourths  and  halves. 

Material.  Draw  two  large  circles  on  the  board,  one 
divided  into  fourths  and  one  into  eighths.  The  circles  may 
represent  wagon  wheels,  pies,  or  any  other  circular  object. 

Method.  To  introduce  the  lesson  the  teacher  may  say, 
"We  were  talking  about  halves  and  fourths  the  other  day; 
now  we  are  going  to  see  whether  we  can  find  out  any  new 
facts  about  halves  and  fourths.  When  we  get  through,  I 
want  you  to  tell  me  what  new  facts  we  have  discovered." 

"Into  how  many  parts  is  this  circle  divided?" 

"Into  four." 

"What  is  each  part  called?" 

"Each  part  is  called  one  fourth." 

"Mary,  show  me  one  fourth."  "Two  fourths."  "Three 
fourths."  "Amy,  show  me  one  half."  "One  half  is  how 
many  fourths?" 

"  One  half  is  two  fourths." 

"Two  halves  are  how  many  fourths?" 

"Two  halves  are  four  fourths." 

"Into  how  many  parts  is  this  second  circle  divided?" 

"Eight  parts." 

"When  we  divide  a  circle  into  four  parts,  we  call  each 


Second  Year  Number  Work  259 

part  a  fourth.     When  we  divide  it  into  eight  parts,  what 
would  we  call  each  part?" 

"One  eighth." 

"Show  me  one  eighth."    "Two  eighths."    "Four  eighths." 
"Five  eighths."     "Eight  eighths."     "How  many  eighths  i 
a  whole  circle?" 

'Eight  eighths." 

'How  many  eighths  in  a  half  circle?" 

'Four  eighths." 

'Show  me  one  fourth  of  this  circle."     "One  fourth  is 
how  many  eighths?" 

'Two  eighths." 

'Two  fourths  equal  how  many  eighths?" 

'Four  eighths." 

'You  say  four  eighths  pqual  two  fourths.     What  else 
does  it  equal?" 

'One  half." 

'How  many  eighths  in  three  fourths  o:  a  circle?" 

'Six  eighths." 

'Five  eighths  of  a  circle  plus  two  eighths  are  how  many 
gliths?" 

'Four  eighths  plus  one  half  are  how  maoy  eighths?" 

'Eight  eighths." 

'How  many  wholes?" 

'One." 

'One  half  plus  one  fourth  are  how  many  eighths?" 

'Three  fourths  plus  one  fourth  equal  how  many  eighths?" 

'Three  fourths  plus  one  eighth  equal  how  many  eighths?" 
"Two  fourths  plus  one  eighth?" 

The  children  may  ask  one  another  similar  questions,  and 
at  the  end  of  the  recitation  may  tell  what  new  facts  they 
have  learned  about  one  half  and  one  fourth;  i.e.,  that  one 
half  equals  either  two  fourths  or  four  eighths,  that  one 
fourth  is  two  eighths  and  that  two  halves,  four  fourths  and 
eight  eighths  are  the  same  This  last  is  not  really  new,  as 
the  children  have  discovered  before  that  two  halves,  three 
thirds  and  four  fourths  all  mean  1. 


260  Public  School  Methods 

(c)  Suggestions  for  Teaching  One  Half  of  Five, 
One  Half  of  Seven,  etc.  In  teaching  halves  of  such 
numbers,  a  good  plan  is  to  use  material  that  will  break  or 
bend  easily.  Splints  may  be  used  and  broken  to  find  the 
half.  A  five  or  seven-inch  paper  ruler  with  the  inches  marked 
may  be  used  and  bent  in  the  right  place.  Measurements 
with  the  pint  and  quart  measures  may  also  serve  as  a  means 
to  teach  these  facts.  If  the  measuring  is  actually  done, 
or  other  suggestions  followed,  the  children  will  have  little 
difficulty  in  grasping  halves  of  odd  numbers. 

TEST  QUESTIONS 

i.  Of  what  work  should  the  first  few  number  lessons  of 
the  second  year  consist?     Why? 

2.  Write  the  combinations  illustrating  (a)  all  the  primary 
number  facts  for  addition;   (b)   all  those  for  multiplication. 

3.  From  the  point  of  view  of  teaching  number,  which 
is  the  more  desirable  material  for  number  lessons,  objects 
such  as  rulers  and  oblongs  that  the  children  construct  for 
themselves,  or  those  which  are  furnished  them  ready  for 
use?  Why?  What  points  of  advantage  are  there  in  using 
both  kinds  of  material? 

4.  How  does  division  differ  from  subtraction?  Illustrate. 
Why  should  division  be  taught  in  connection  with  multi- 
plication ? 

5.  How  far  should  you  proceed  with  problems  requiring 
multiplication  by  one  figure  before  multiplication  by  two 
figures  is  taken  up?  State  the  most  serious  difficulties  you 
encounter  in  multiplication.  To  what  causes  can  most  of 
these  difficulties  be  traced? 

6.  What  ought  the  teacher  to  gain  from  the  illustrative 
material  in  this  chapter?  When  are  such  lessons  wrongly 
used?     Why? 

7.  Which  do  you  find  the  more  difficult  to  teach,  multi- 
plication or  division?  Why?  How  can  some  of  the  diffi- 
culties in  teaching  division  be  removed? 


Second  Year  Number  Work  261 

8.  Why  are  simple  exercises  in  fractions,  such  as  finding 
J,  £  and  I  of  a  thing,  easier  for  children  than  exercises  in 
division?     When  would  you  introduce  these  exercises? 

9.  Construct  three  problems  in  multiplication,  three  in 
division  and  four  in  fractions  suitable  to  be  given  your 
pupils  the  last  month  of  their  second  year's  work  in  number. 

10.  Construct  a  number  chart  which  you  can  use  with 
second  grade  pupils  during  the  last  half  of  the  year.  Explain 
how  it  is  to  be  used  and  state  what  you  expect  to  accomplish 
by  its  use. 


CHAPTER   NINE 

THIRD  YEAR  NUMBER  WORK 

1.  Text-Book  Work.  One  great  difficulty  which  teachers 
encounter  in  number  work  lies  in  the  introduction  of  the 
text-book.  Often  children  who  have  previously  done  very 
good  work  seem  almost  unable  to  proceed  when  the  book 
is  put  into  their  hands.  This  will  be  avoided  if  the  right 
kind  of  preparatory  work  is  done. 

(a)  Preliminary  Steps.  Be  sure  that  the  pupils  can 
read  and  understand  the  problems  before  the  text-book  is 
placed  in  their  hands.  As  a  rule,  the  pupils  will  be  more 
or  less  embarrassed  by  the  book,  although  it  contains  but 
few  words  with  which  they  are  not  familiar.  The  embarrass- 
ment arises  from  the  fact  that  the  book  is  to  be  used  for  a 
new  purpose.  The  attention  is  centered  upon  the  number 
facts  more  than  upon  the  reading,  and  the  first  few  pages 
should  contain  nothing  with  which  the  pupils  are  not  already 
familiar. 

(b)  Preparatory  Lessons.  Special  preparatory  lessons 
should  always  precede  the  introduction  of  the  book.  These 
lessons  should  be  so  planned  as  to  make  adequate  prepara- 
tion for  the  different  pages,  and  they  will  naturally  vary 
considerably.  For  some  pages  merely  a  word  or  two  of 
explanation  will  suffice;  for  others,  a  brief  oral  review  will 
do;  again,  for  others,  two  or  three  preparatory  lessons  which 
include  oral  work,  blackboard  and  written  work  will  be 
found  necessary;  but  bear  in  mind  that  there  is  scarcely 
a  page  of  text-book  matter  that  will  not  need  some  prep- 
aration before  the  children  can  take  it  up  and  carry  it 
through  successfully  and  easily. 

At  the  end  of  every  recitation  period  it  is  well  to  assign 
a  lesson  for  the  next  day  and  have  the  pupils  carefully 
read  each  problem  to  see  if  all  are  understood.  If  there  is 
any  difficulty,  it  can  easily  be  cleared  up  at  this  time.    After 

262 


Third  Year  Number  Work 


263 


this  preparatory  exercise,  hold  each  child  responsible  for 
the  solution  of  all  problems  in  the  assignment.  It  is  no 
wonder  that  children  stumble  over  work  that  ought  to  be 
easy,  when  we  consider  how  often  they  are  given  work  to 
do  for  which  they  have  had  no  preparation.  Suppose  that 
it  ha",  b^en  six  weeks  or  two  months  since  a  child  has  had 
problems  in  liquid  measure,  and  he  suddenly  comes  to  this 
problem  in  his  book:  "  How  many  gallons  in  twelve  quarts?" 
Six  out  of  ten  children  would  probably  stumble  on  the  ques- 
tion, guess  at  the  answer,  and  waste  a  good  deal  of  time 
before  they  got  it.  If  the  teacher  had  spent  a  very  few 
minutes  recalling  the  table  of  liquid  measure  and  rapidly 
giving  a  few  problems  before  the  lesson  was  taken  up,  the 
problem,  with  similar  ones  that  would  undoubtedly  follow, 
would  be  readily  solved.  Or  the  teacher  might,  on  the 
preceding  day,  give  a  few  problems  which  would  recall  all 
of  the  work  in  liquid  measure  and  use  these  problems  for 
the  busy  work  for  that  day.  This  preparation  would  serve 
just  as  well. 

(c)  Illustrative  Lesson.     The  following  will  illustrate 
how  a  text-book  lesson  may  be  taken  up : 


'i.  One  dollar  is  equal  in  value  to  — 

2.  One  dollar  is  equal  in  value  to  

3.  One   half-dollar  is   equal   in   value   to 


half-dollars, 
fourth-dollars. 
—  fourth- 


dollars.     A  fourth-dollar  is  sometimes   called  a  quarter,   or 
a  quarter  of  a  dollar. 

"4.  One  half  of  a  dollar  and  one  fourth  of  a  dollar  are 
fourths  of  a  dollar. 


264  Public  School  Methods 

"5.  One  half  of  a  dollar  less  one  fourth  of  a  dollar  is 
of  a  dollar. 


"6.  Four  times  one  fourth  of  a  dollar  equals fourths 

of  a  dollar,  or dollar. 

"  7.  One  fourth  of  a  dollar  is  contained  in  one  half  of 
a  dollar times. 

"  8.  One  half  of  one  half  of  a  dollar  is of  a 

dollar."1 

Material.  When  ready  for  the  lesson,  the  teacher  should 
state  that  before  using  their  text-books  a  short  review  is 
to  be  held.  She  should  bring  to  the  class  a  dollar,  a  half- 
dollar  and  a  quarter. 

Method.  After  briefly  stating  the  purpose  of  the  lesson, 
the  teacher  may  ask,  "John,  what  is  the  name  of  this  coin? " 
(Holding  up  a  dollar.) 

"It  is  a  dollar." 

"How  many  cents  does  it  equal?" 

"One  hundred." 

"What  is  the  name  of  this  coin?"  (Holding  up  a  half- 
dollar.) 

"One  half-dollar  or  fifty  cents." 

"How  many  of  these  does  it  take  to  make  one  dollar?" 

"It  takes  two." 

"We  say  that  one  dollar  is  equal  in  value  to  two  half- 
dollars.     One  dollar  is  equal  in  value  to  how  many  cents?" 

"To  one  hundred  cents." 

"Two  half-dollars  are  equal  in  value  to  how  many  cents? " 

"To  one  hundred  cents." 

"What  is  the  name  of  this  coin?"  (Holding  up  a  quarter.) 

"A  quarter  or  a  twenty-five-cent  piece." 

"You  say  it  is  a  quarter.     A  quarter  of  what?" 

"A  quarter  of  a  dollar." 

"What  is  another  name  for  a  quarter  of  anything?" 

"A  fourth." 

"Then  this  (holding  up  the  quarter)  is  equal  in  value 
to  what  part  of  a  dollar?" 

xTbe  Werner  Arithmetic,  Book  It, 


Third  Year  Number  Work  265 

"It  is  equal  in  value  to  one  fourth  of  a  dollar." 

"It  is  equal  in  value  to  how  many  cents?" 

"To  twenty-five  cents." 

"This  piece  of  money  (holding  up  a  half-dollar)  is  equal 
in  value  to  how  many  quarters?" 

"It  is  equal  in  value  to  two  quarters." 

"This  (holding  up  the  dollar)  is  equal  in  value  to  how 
many  quarters?" 

"  It  is  equal  to  four  quarters." 

"One  dollar  is  equal  in  value  to  how  many  half-dollars?" 

"To  how  many  fourth-dollars?" 

"One  half  of  a  dollar  is  how  many  fourths  of  a  dollar?" 

"Two." 

"One  half  of  a  dollar  and  one  fourth  of  a  dollar  are  how 
many  fourths  of  a  dollar?" 

"They  are  !;hree  fourths  of  a  dollar." 

"If  I  had  one  half  of  a  dollar  and  took  away  one  fourth 
of  a  dollar,  how  much  would  I  have  left?" 

"  One-fourth  of  a  dollar,  or  twenty-five  cents." 

"  How  many  times  must  I  take  one  fourth  of  a  dollar 
to  make  one  half  of  a  dollar?" 

"Two  times." 

"Another  way  of  saying  that  is  to  say  that  one  fourth 
of  a  dollar  is  contained  in  one  half  of  a  dollar  two  times. 
One  fourth  of  a  dollar  is  contained  in  one  dollar  how  many 
times?" 

"  It  is  contained  in  one  dollar  four  times." 

"  One  half-dollar  is  contained  in  one  dollar  how  many 
times?" 

"It  is  contained  two  times." 

"  Read  this  first  problem  (pointing  to  the  board)  and 
in  place  of  this  line,  put  the  words  how  many."1 

A  child  reads,  "  One  dollar  is  equal  in  value  to half- 
dollars,"  supplying  the  words  as  directed. 

Enough  problems  are  given  to  accustom  the  children  to 
supplying  the  words,  how  many.  Other  problems  are  read 
in  which  they  have  to  supply  the  words,  what  part.     A  few 


266  Public  School  Methods 

problems  requiring  the  words,  is  contained  in,  are  given, 
the  word  contained  being  told  by  the  teacher  if  the  pupil 
hesitates. 

The  text-book  may  now  be  used,  the  attention  of  the 
children  being  called  to  the  pictures  at  the  top  of  the  page. 
They  tell  what  they  see,  then  solve  the  problems.  Since 
the  meaning  of  the  new  phrases  has  been  made  clear,  the 
children  will  have  little  difficulty  in  understanding  the 
problems.  So,  in  every  lesson,  new  expressions  and  new 
forms  of  problems  should  first  be  made  perfectly  clear.  A 
teacher  needs  to  be  constantly  on  guard  to  see  that  every 
problem  is  understood.  Ask  often  for  the  meaning  of  the 
problems  or  the  meaning  of  a  word.  Teach  the  child  that 
in  every  problem  he  must  look  for  three  things,  viz.:  what 
is  given,  what  is  required,  and  the  process  by  which  the 
result  is  obtained.  It  is  well  occasionally  to  have  problems 
in  which  these  three  factors  are  told  by  the  child  with  no 
attention  Daid  to  the  answer. 

It  is  well  at  this  time  to  speak  briefly  of  the  analyses  of 
problems  to  be  expected  on  the  part  of  children.  It  is  too 
often  the  case  that  pupils  memorize  a  set  form  of  analysis 
which  has  been  recommended  by  the  teacher  or  taken  from 
a  text-book.  Many  teachers  even  make  the  mistake  of 
requiring  pupils  to  learn  an  elaborate  explanation  for,  say, 
multiplying  one  integer  by  another.  Let  it  be  remembered 
that  the  operation  in  such  cases  is  sufficient,  and  an  explana- 
tion, which  is  merely  a  repetition  of  the  words  of  the  teacher 
or  text-book,  without  any  apparent  mental  content,  is  not 
only  unnecessary,  but  harmful.  The  pupil  should  be  allowed 
and  encouraged  to  state  his  reasons  for  the  solution  of  a 
problem  in  his  own  language.  Through  this  he  will  acquire 
a  habit  of  logical  expression  which  will  help  him  in  many 
other  lines  of  expression  and  afford  the  teacher  opportunity 
for  helpful  suggestions. 

2.  Reduction  of  Denominate  Numbers.  During  the  pre- 
ceding years  the  children  have  been  thoroughly  grounded 
in  the  tables  of  liquid  measure,  dry  measure,  United  States 


Third  Year  Number  Work  267 

money  and  possibly  one  other  table.  They  can  readily 
change  quarts  to  gallons,  gallons  to  pints,  dimes  to  nickels, 
etc.,  but  having  no  knowledge  of  the  meaning  of  multipli- 
cation and  division  at  the  time  when  these  facts  were  learned 
they  did  not  formulate  any  rule  for  the  reduction  of  denomi- 
nate numbers.  This  lesson  will  show  how  the  rules  for  the 
reduction  of  pints  to  quarts  and  quarts  to  gallons  may  be 
taught.  Rules  for  the  reduction  of  other  denominate  num- 
bers may  be  taught  in  a  similar  manner. 

Illustrative  Lesson.  Material.  The  measures  and 
water  should  be  at  hand  in  case  any  child  has  forgotten  the 
facts  or  cannot  reduce  quantities  readily. 

Method.  This  lesson  should  begin  with  a  short  review 
of  the  table  of  liquid  measure.  For  the  review,  questions 
somewhat  like  the  following  may  be  asked:  "May,  how 
many  pints  in  one  quart?"  "How  many  pints  in  two 
quarts?"  "Harry,  how  many  quarts  in  one  pint?"  "In 
two  pints?"  "In  four  pints,  class?"  "Nellie,  how  many 
quarts  in  a  gallon?"  "How  many  quarts  in  three  gallons, 
John?"  "How  many  gallons  in  eight  quarts?"  "In  twelve 
quarts?"  "Who  can  say  the  little  table  about  pints,  quarts 
and  gallons?" 

"Two  pints  make  one  quart. 
Four  quarts  make  one  gallon." 

"We  are  going  to  find  out  today  whether  we  cannot 
make  some  rules  to  help  us  in  changing  from  pints  to  quarts, 
quarts  to  gallons,  and  back  again  from  gallons  to  quarts 
and  quarts  to  pints."  "Suppose  that  I  have  six  pints  of 
milk.     How  many  quarts  have  I,  Robert?" 

"You  have  three  quarts." 

"Class,  how  did  Robert  know  that  six  pints  is  the  same 
as  three  quarts?" 

"  He  knew  that  one  quart  is  two  pints,  another  one 
would  be  two  more,  or  four  pints,  and  another  quart  would 
make  six  pints." 

"True,  but  can  we  not  find  a  shorter  way  to  tell  it? 
Suppose  that  I  had  twenty  pints  that  I  wanted  to  change 


268  Public  School  Methods 

to  quarts.  Must  I  say  that  one  quart  is  two  pints,  another 
is  two  more,  another  two  more,  and  two  more  and  two  more 
and  so  on  until  I  have  used  up  twenty  pints?  Think  how 
long  it  would  take.  I'm  sure  you  do  not  do  that  when  I 
ask  you  how  many  quarts  there  are  in  twenty  pints.  How 
many  quarts  are  there?" 

"Ten." 

"How  do  you  know?" 

"Because  there  are  ten  twos  in  twenty." 

"How  many  quarts  in  sixteen  pints?" 

"Eight." 

"How  do  you  know?" 

"Because  there  are  eight  twos  in  sixteen." 

"Tell  us  that  at  the  board." 

The  child  writes,  8X2  ■=  16. 

"Suppose,  though,  that  we  do  not  know  how  many  twos 
there  are  in  a  certain  number?     How  can  we  find  out?" 

"We  can  divide." 

"Divide  what?" 

"We  can  divide  the  number  by  two." 

"Show  me,  by  dividing,  how  many  twos  there  are  in  44." 
"In  62."     "In  84." 

"  I  have  68  pints  of  milk.  Show  me  by  division  how 
many  quarts  I  have."  "In  the  same  way  show  me  how 
many  quarts  in  88  pints." 

"In  42  pints." 

"Who  now  can  make  a  rule  for  us  that  will  always  help 
us  to  change  pints  to  quarts  very  quickly?  Make  your  rule 
very  exact  and  word  it  carefully." 

"To  change  pints  to  quarts,  divide  the  number  of  pints 
by  two." 

Following  this  same  plan,  the  children  will  readily  tell 
how  to  change  quarts  to  gallons  and  then  the  rule  may  be 
developed  that  to  change  from  a  quantity  of  a  certain  order 
to  a  quantity  of  a  larger  order  we  must  always  divide. 

It  is  a  very  simple  matter  to  secure  from  the  children 
the  rule  that  to  change  from  a  quantity  of  a  certain  order 


Third  Year  Number  Work  269 

to  one  of  a  lower  order  we  must  multiply.  Liquid  measure 
may  be  taken  up  first  and  the  rule  for  changing  from  gallons 
to  quarts  quickly  developed,  as  follows: 

"Marjorie,  how  many  quarts  in  one  gallon?"  "How 
many  quarts  in  two  gallons,  class?"  "In  four  gallons?" 
"In  six  gallons?"     "Tell  me  how  you  find  it." 

"In  one  gallon  there  are  four  quarts,  so  in  six  gallons 
there  are  six  times  as  many  quarts." 

"  I  have  a  certain  number  of  gallons  of  oil.  I  am  not 
going  to  tell  how  many,  but  I  want  to  know  how  I  can  find 
out  how  many  quarts  there  are." 

"You  must  multiply  the  number  of  gallons  by  four." 

"Put  that  in  the  form  of  a  rule." 

"To  change  gallons  to  quarts,  multiply  the  number  of 
gallons  by  four." 

The  rule  for  changing  quarts  to  pints  may  now  be  devel- 
oped. Dry  measure  may  be  taken  up  next,  then  money, 
then  linear  measure.  Rules  should  be  developed  in  each 
case  until  it  is  perfectly  clear  to  the  children  that  when  we 
change  a  quantity  of  one  order  to  a  quantity  of  higher 
order,  division  always  takes  place,  and  when  we  change  a 
quantity  to  a  quantity  of  lower  order,  multiplication  takes 
place. 

Caution.  Teachers  are  too  apt  to  think  that  it  is  a  waste 
of  time  to  develop  rules  from  the  children  and,  consequently, 
give  the  rule  themselves  and  feel  satisfied  if  the  pupils  per- 
form the  operations.  Do  not  be  this  kind  of  a  teacher.  Make 
your  pupils  think  instead  of  doing  their  thinking  for  them. 
Do  not  be  content  to  have  a  lot  of  little  machines  grinding 
out  answers  to  problems,  but  seek  to  develop  reasoning 
power  and  judgment.  In  no  other  subject  is  there  greater 
opportunity  for  doing  this  than  in  arithmetic,  and  only 
insofar  as  this  result  is  accomplished  is  number  work  of 
practical  value. 

3.  Addition  of  Fractions.  Illustrative  Lesson.  Pur- 
pose of  the  lesson:  To  develop  the  rule  for  the  addition  of 
fractions. 


270  Public  ScJwol  Methods 

Material.    On  the  board  have  five  large  circles  as  follows: 


Method.  In  beginning  the  lesson  the  teacher  says  to  the 
class,  "Not  long  ago  we  found  out  what  a  fraction  is  and 
why  we  call  it  a  fraction.  Today  we  are  going  to  find  out 
something  new  about  fractions.  How  many  parts  in  this 
first  circle?" 

"Two  parts." 

"Each  part  is  called  what?" 

"Each  part  is  called  one  half." 

"What  is  each  part  in  the  second  circle  called?'"  (One 
third.)     "In  the  third?"     "The  fourth?"     "The  fifth?" 

"In  one  whole  how  many  twelfths?" 

"Twelve  twelfths." 

"In  one  half  how  many  twelfths?" 

"Six  twelfths." 

"In  one  third  how  many  twelfths?" 

"Four  twelfths." 

"In  one  fourth  how  many  twelfths?" 

"Three  twelfths." 

"In  one  sixth  how  many  twelfths?" 

"Two  twelfths." 

"In  one  half  and  one  twelfth  how  many  twelfths?" 

"Seven  twelfths." 

"In  one  third  and  one  twelfth  how  many  twelfths?" 

"In  one  fourth  and  one  twelfth?" 

"In  one  sixth  and  one  twelfth?" 

"If  I  had  two  and  one  half  apples  and  some  one  gave 
me  a  twelfth  of  another,  how  many  apples  would  I  have?" 

"You  would  have  two  and  seven  twelfths." 

"Then  two  and  one  half  plus  one  twelfth  equals  what?" 

"It  equals  two  and  seven  twelfths." 


Third  Year  Number  Work  271 

"I  will  write  that  for  you."     (Writes  2 £  +^  -2TV) 

"If  John  had  one  and  one  third  apples  and  Rena  gave 
him  three  twelfths  more,  how  many  would  he  have?" 

"  He  would  have  one  and  seven  twelfths." 

"  Harry,  tell  us  at  the  board  what  one  and  one  third  plus 
three  twelfths  equals." 

It  is  written. 

"  Here  is  a  harder  problem.  You  will  have  to  think  care- 
fully." "  If  I  had  one  half  of  an  orange  and  one  third  of 
it  and  one  twelfth  of  it,  how  much  would  I  have?" 

"You  would  have  eleven  twelfths." 

"How  do  you  know?" 

"  Because  one  half  is  six  twelfths,  one  third  is  four  twelfths 
and  one  twelfth  is  one  twelfth,  so  all  together  they  make 
eleven  twelfths." 

"Suppose  we  write  that."  The  teacher  writes  $  +  $+■>& 
=  i^  +  tV  +  t*Ji  or  H-  She  then  says,  "Add  this"  (writing 
£  +  £+•&)•  When  the  answer  is  given,  the  teacher  writes, 
i  +  i+i4-A+A+A"ii»  or  l-  The  following  problems 
are  then  given: 

H*+tW        4+i  +  iW        i+l+A-? 

In  each  case  the  results  are  written  out  as  shown  above. 
The  teacher  then  says  to  the  class,  "  I_  want  you  to  tell  me 
exactly  what  you  did  when  you  added  these  fractions" 
(pointing  to  the  problem  i  +  i+^V  =t\+A  +  tj»  or  tV)- 

"We  changed  the  one  third  and  one  fourth  to  twelfths 
and  added  them  to  the  one  twelfth." 

"In  other  words,  you  changed  these  two  fractions  (one 
half  and  one  third)  to  fractions  of  another  name.  What 
new  name  did  you  give  them?" 

"Twelfths." 

"What  new  name  did  you  give  these?"  "These?" 
"These?"     (Pointing  to  different  problems.) 

"Well,  what  made  you  change  them  to  twelfths?" 

"So  that  we  could  add  them." 


272  Pvblic  ScJwol  Methods 

"Why  didn't  you  change  this  one  half  (i  +  ^4-^  =  •&  + 
fa  +  T*T)  to  fourths  and  say  that  h  +  $  +  TV  -  I  +  i\  +  Vs ? " 
"Won't  this  do?" 

"No." 

"Why  not?" 

"The  fractions  must  have  the  same  name." 

"Did  you  give  them  the  same  name  in  all  of  these  other 
problems?" 

"Yes." 

"Must  they  always  have  the  same  name?" 

"Yes." 

"Very  well.  Who,  then,  can  make  a  rule  for  us  telling 
us  how  to  add  fractions?" 

"To  add  fractions  change  them  to  fractions  having  the 
same  name." 

"Add  these  fractions  for  me."     (The  teacher  writes  £  +  J.) 

"One  half  equals  six  twelfths;  three  fourths  equals  nine 
twelfths.  Six  twelfths  and  nine  twelfths  equal  fifteen 
twelfths." 

"  You  did  that  correctly,  but  there  is  a  much  easier  way 
to  add  those  fractions.     Who  sees  it?" 

If  no  one  does,  the  teacher  rapidly  draws  two  circles, 
dividing  one  into  halves,  the  other  into  fourths. 

"Now  who  sees  how  to  add  one  half  and  three  fourths?" 

The  children  readily  see  that  the  fractions  can  be  added  by 
changing  them  to  fourths.  In  the  same  way  show  that  halves 
and  thirds  may  be  added  by  reducing  them  to  sixths;  halves 
and  sixths  to  sixths;  thirds  and  sixths  to  sixths,  in  each  case 
emphasizing  the  fact  that  while  it  is  not  wrong  to  change  them 
to  twelfths,  it  is  easier  and  better  to  change  them  to  fractions 
with  smaller  names.  When  this  fact  has  been  firmly  fixed,  the 
teacher  may  say,  "  Harry  gave  us  a  good  rule  for  adding  frac- 
tions. Who  now  can  add  something  more  to  that  rule  to  make 
it  even  better? "  The  new  rule  given  may  be  very  crude,  but 
never  mind.  If  it  states  the  facts,  that  is  all  you  want.  Furth- 
ermore, never  discourage  a  child  when  he  is  attempting  to  form 
his  own  rules,  but  give  all  the  praise  you  possibly  can.     In  all 


Third  Year  X umber  Work 


273 


probability  the  rule  which  the  children  now  give  will  be  some- 
what as  follows:  "To  add  fractions,  change  them  to  frac- 
tions having  the  same  name.  Make  the  new  name  as  small 
as  you  can,  and  then,  when  the  fractions  all  have  the  same 
name,  add  them."  Though  the  rule  lacks  conciseness,  for 
the  first  attempt  it  certainly  should  be  praised.  Later  on, 
it  can  be  polished  and  made  more  concise. 

Do  not  hurry  in  this  work.  Take  plenty  of  time  for  the 
development  of  each  rule.  Then  give  plenty  of  drill  in 
applying  the  rule   before  teaching  anything  new. 

Following  this  same  plan,  the  rule  for  subtraction  of 
fractions  may  be  developed.  The  same  figures  may  also 
be  used  in  teaching  multiplication  and  division  of  fractions. 

Caution.  Do  not  think  that  the  lesson  as  outlined  above 
is  to  be  finished  at  one  recitation.  It  may  take  two,  three, 
four,  five  or  even  more,  according  to  the  class  and  the  readi- 
ness with  which  they  grasp  new  ideas.  Take  plenty  of  time 
with  the  beginning  work  and  you  will  find  that  time  will 
be  saved  in  the  end. 

4.  Ratio  and  Proportion.     Illustrative  Lesson. 
1 1 


z  H 


9  H 

5  h 


7  1- 

8  h 

0  H 

10  h 


H J 1 1 


274  Public  School  Methods 

Material.  Lines  drawn  as  above  are  on  the  board.  The 
lines  should  be  long  enough  so  that  they  can  be  readily- 
seen.  If  the  first  line  is  drawn  twelve  inches  long  and  the 
second  twenty-four,  they  will  be  found  to  serve  the  pur- 
pose very  well. 

Method.  The  teacher  says  to  the  class,  "I  have  drawn 
some  lines  on  the  board  this  morning  which  I  want  you 
to  compare.  We  shall  call  each  of  these  divisions  one  inch." 
"In  line  marked  i,  how  many  inches  are  there?" 

"There  are  two  inches." 

"In  line  marked  2,  how  many  inches?" 

"There  are  four  inches." 

"Line  1  is  what  part  of  line  2?" 

"Line  1  is  one  half  of  line  2." 

"I  am  going  to  tell  you  a  new  way  of  saying  that.  We 
say  that  the  ratio  (writing  the  word)  of  line  1  to  line  2  is 
one  half." 

"We  also  say  that  the  ratio  of  line  2  to  line  1  is  two. 
Who  sees  why?" 

"Because  it  is  twice  as  long." 

"What  is  the  length  of  line  3?" 

"Three  inches." 

"Of  line  4?" 

"Six  inches." 

"Line  3  is  what  part  of  line  4?" 

"It  is  one  half  of  line  4." 

"Who,  then,  can  tell  me  what  the  ratio  of  line  3  to 
line  4  is?" 

"The  ratio  of  line  3  to  line  4  is  one  half." 

"What  is  the  ratio  of  line  4  to  3?" 

"The  ratio  is  two." 

"What  is  the  ratio  of  line  5  to  6?" 

"The  ratio  of  line  5  to  6  is  one  third." 

"What  is  the  ratio  of  line  6  to  5?" 

"The  ratio  of  line  6  to  5  is  three." 

"What,  then,  is  the  ratio  of  two  inches  to  six  inches?" 
"Of  six  inches  to   two   inches?"      "Of  two   apples   to   six 


Third  Year  Number  Work  275 

apples?"  "Of  six  apples  to  two  apples?"  "Of  two  bushels 
of  corn  to  six  bushels?" 

"  Look  closely  at  lines  7  and  8  and  tell  me  the  two  ratios." 

"The  ratio  of  line  7  to  line  8  is  one  fourth,  and  the  ratio 
of  line  8  to  line  7  is  four." 

"In  lines  9  and  10  we  have  something  harder.  How 
many  inches  in  line  9  ?" 

"There  are  four  inches." 

"In  line  10?" 

"There  are  six  inches." 

"  Each  one  of  these  six  inches  is  what  part  of  the  whole 
line?" 

"  Each  one  is  one  sixth  of  the  whole  line." 

"Then  line  9  is  what  part  of  line  10?" 

"  It  is  four  sixths." 

"What,  then,  is  the  ratio  of  line  9  to  10?" 

"It  is  four  sixths." 

"What  is  the  ratio  of  four  inches  to  six  inches?"  "Of 
four  apples  to  six  apples?"     "Of  four  cents  to  six  cents?" 

"  Now,  we  say  that  the  ratio  of  line  10  to  line  9  is  six 
fourths.     Who  sees  the  reason  for  that?" 

"  Because  to  make  line  10  out  of  line  9  we  must  take 
line  9,  or  four  fourths,  and  two  fourths  more,  making  six 
fourths." 

"Who  can  tell  the  two  ratios  of  lines  11  and  12?" 

"The  ratio  of  line  11  to  line  12  is  three  fourths.  The 
ratio  of  line  12  to  line  11  is  four  thirds." 

"Tell  me  again  the  ratio  of  line  1  to  line  2." 

"One  half." 

"Of  line  2  to  line  1." 

"Two." 

"Suppose  that  each  little  line  means  a  stick  of  candy. 
If  these  four  sticks  of  candy  can  be  bought  for  four  cents, 
for  how  many  cents  can  I  buy  two  sticks?" 

"For'two  cents." 

"  If  four  cents  buy  eight  pencils,  how  many  will  two 
cents  buy?" 


276  Public  School  Methods 

"They  will  buy  four." 

"If  two  cents  buy  four  marbles,  how  many  will  four 
cents  buy?" 

"They  will  buy  eight  marbles." 

"  Look  at  lines  5  and  6  and  tell  me  the  ratio  of  two  inches 
to  six  inches."  "Of  six  inches  to  two  inches."  "Of  two 
marbles  to  six  marbles."     "Of  six  marbles  to  two  marbles." 

"If  two  marbles  cost  ten  cents,  what  will  six  marbles 
cost?" 

"They  will  cost  thirty  cents." 

"If  six  marbles  may  be  bought  for  twelve  cents,  for 
what  can  I  buy  two  marbles?" 

The  teacher  should  give  many  other  similar  problems. 
ProWems  involving  the  ratio  four  sixths  will  be  more  diffi- 
cult, but  if  small  numbers  are  used  at  first,  the  children 
will  readily  take  up  the  work.  By  drawing  the  line  of  six 
inches  again  and  dividing  it  'into  thirds,  the  children  will 
recognize  four  sixths  as  two  thirds  and  six  fourths  as  three 
halves.  Continue  the  work  until  the  children  thoroughly 
understand  this  kind  of  problem. 

6.  Written  Work.  In  the  third  grade  rapid  written  work 
should  be  an  important  feature.  Give  the  children  about 
five  minutes  to  see  how  many  problems  can  be  worked  cor- 
rectly in  that  time.  Appeal  to  emulation;  match  your 
classes,  and  aim  to  have  the  recitation  full  of  snap  from 
start  to  finish.  A  good  deal  of  simple  work  can  be  done 
as  seat  work,  or  busy  work,  as  it  is  often  called.  Tables  of 
multiplication  and  division  may  be  formed,  simple  number 
stories  written,  problems  on  the  board  solved  or  original 
drawings  made  to  illustrate  number  facts.  These  papers 
should  be  carefully  looked  over  and  returned  with  the  mis- 
takes marked.  A  good  many  teachers  get  into  the  habit 
of  demanding  considerable  written  work  which  is  consigned 
to  the  waste  basket  without  being  looked  over.  This  prac- 
tice leads  to  careless  work,  for  the  children,  knowing  that 
their  work  will  not  be  corrected,  naturally  do  not  try  to  do 
their  best.     A  capable,  older  pupil  may  often  be  entrusted 


Third  Year  Number  Work  277 

with  this  work  of  looking  over  papers  if  the  teacher  is  very 
busy.  The  teacher  should  see  to  it,  however,  that  this  pupil 
does  her  work  carefully  and  conscientiously. 

6.  Decimals.  Decimal  fractions,  if  properly  taken  up,  do 
not  prove  difficult  for  most  children.  The  following  will 
illustrate  one  way  in  which  the  work  may  be  commenced: 
The  teacher  informs  the  class  that  they  are  going  to  learn 
about  a  new  kind  of  fractions.  She  then  asks  the  question, 
"Robert,  fifty  cents  is  what  part  of  a  dollar?" 

"It  is  one  half  of  a  dollar." 

"How  many  one-hundredths  of  a  dollar  is  it?" 

"  It  is  fifty  one-hundredths." 

The  teacher  writes:  50c  ==  AV  "  Now  we  will  write  it 
another  way,  using  the  dollar  sign."  The  teacher  then 
explains  that  the  decimal  point  must  be  written  before 
every  decimal  fraction      $  .50  is  written  at  the  right  of  -^V 

"Mary,  write  forty-five  cents  in  these  three  ways." 

"Write  seventy-five  cents,  Ruth." 

"Class,  read  this  number."     (The  teacher  writes  $1.55.) 

"Of  what  use  is  the  decimal  point?" 

"It  separates  the  cents  from  the  dollars." 

"How  many  cents  are  there  in  that  sum?" 

"There  are  fifty-five  cents." 

"In  fifty-five  cents,  how  many  tens?" 

"There  are  five  tens  and  five  cents  more." 

"  Here,  now,  is  one  thing  we  must  remember.  The  first 
number  which  follows  the  decimal  point  means  tenths.  In 
this  number  ($1.55)  the  first  five  means  five  tenths  of  a 
dollar.  In  these  numbers  tell  me  how  many  tenths  of  a 
dollar." 

$  -25  $i-53 

.69  4.28 

.87  3.07 

.40  1.03 

The  tenths  are  given. 

"In  $  .55  you  said  there  were  five  tenths  and  five  cents 


278  Public  School  Methods 

more.     Now  this  five  cents  that  is  left  is  what  part  of  a 
whole  dollar?" 

"It  is  five  one-hundredths." 

"Let  us  write  it  in  three  ways." 

"It  is  written  thus:     5c,  T-fhy,  $  .05." 

"Write  six  cents  in  three  ways."  "Seven  cents."  "Eight 
cents."     "Ten  cents." 

"Here,  then,  is  something  else  to  remember.  The  second 
figure  after  the  decimal  point  means  hundredths.  Now 
read  these  same  numbers  and  tell  the  hundredths  in  each 
case." 

"  Now  how  shall  we  write  a  decimal  fraction  that  does 
not  contain  tenths  ?" 

If  no  one  knows,  the  teacher  explains. 

"When  we  first  began,  you  said  that  fifty  cents  equals 
fifty  one-hundredths  of  a  dollar.  Twenty-five  cents  is  how 
many  hundredths  of  a  dollar?" 

"It  is  twenty-five  hundredths." 

"Read  these  same  numbers  as  so  many  hundredths  of 
a  dollar." 

The  numbers  are  read,  the  dollars  being  omitted  in  the 
second  column. 

"If  I  write  five  tenths  of  a  dollar  thus  (writing  .5),  how 
shall  I  write  five  tenths  of  a  bushel?"  "Five  tenths  of 
a  foot?"     "Five  tenths  of  anything?" 

"If  three  hundredths  of  a  dollar  is  written  .03,  how  shall 
we  write  three  hundredths  of  anything?" 

"How  shall  we  write  twenty-five  hundredths?"  "Sixty- 
five  hundredths?" 

Plenty  of  practice  in  reading  and  writing  decimals  is 
given  and  problems  in  addition  and  subtraction  are  solved 
until  the  children  are  perfectly  familiar  with  the  two  places 
following  the  decimal  point.  In  a  later  lesson  it  should  be 
brought  out  that  1.2  may  be  read  one  and  two  tenths,  or 
twelve  tenths;  3.7  as  three  and  seven  tenths,  or  thirty-seven 
tenths.  Do  not  introduce  this  too  soon,  for  fear  of  con- 
fusing the  children. 


Third  Year  Number  Work  279 

Caution.  It  is  not  necessary,  or  even  desirable,  that 
children  in  this  grade  know  any  of  the  theory  of  decimal 
fractions.  The  decimal  point  should  be  looked  upon  by 
them  simply  as  separating  dollars  and  dimes  (hundredths 
and  tenths),  and  will  give  no  trouble  unless  the  teacher, 
by  other  explaining,  confuses  the  class. 

7.  Other  Features  of  Third  Year  Work.  It  is  usually 
considered  sufficient  if  the  child  understands  numbers  to 
10,000  in  this  grade,  although  he  may  be  allowed  to  count 
by  10,000's  to  100,000,  or  even  farther.  In  the  writing  of 
Roman  numerals  there  is  no  need  in  going  beyond  C  in  the 
first  half  year,  and  M  in  the  second  half.  The  counting 
of  the  second  grade  should  be  continued,  including  the  6's, 
7's,  8's,  9's  and  io's.  These  can  be  used  as  a  basis  for  the 
multiplication  tables  and  as  a  review  of  addition  combina- 
tions. 

The  45  combinations  of  one-figure  numbers  should  be 
reviewed,  and  in  the  first  half  year  oral  work  of  the  types 
of  30+40,  35+40,  should  be  taken,  to  be  followed  in  the 
second  half  year  by  cases  like  25+42  and  225+42,  where 
no  carrying  is  involved.  The  multiplication  may  be  carried 
so  far  as  to  include  three-figure  multiplicands  and  one-figure 
multipliers.  The  division  may  include  one,  and,  in  strong 
classes,  two-figure  divisors  not  exceeding  12,  and  it  is  well 
to  give  children  the  form  which  will  be  needed  for  later 

432 
work  in  arithmetic  and  algebra;  that  is,   2)864. 

Lack  of  space  forbids  treatment  of  all  of  the  various 
phases  of  number  work,  but  with  the  suggestions  made, 
with  a  careful  study  of  good  books  on  number  work,  with 
the  help  to  be  found  in  educational  magazines,  and  with 
personal  ingenuity,  a  teacher  should  be  able  to  make  of 
number  work  a  most  delightful  study. 

She  should  bear  in  mind  that  to  be  successful  in  teach- 
ing any  subject,  she  must  have  a  definite  end  in  view  and 
constantly  work  toward  this  end.  Disjointed,  spasmodic 
work  bears  little  fruit.     It  is  the  steady,  patient  striving 


280  Public  School  Methods 

to  accomplish  a  certain  purpose  that  counts.  Furthermore, 
it  is  absolutely  essential  that  the  teacher  have  a  good  grasp 
of  the  topics  she  expects  to  cover  in  a  certain  term.  She 
should  not  teach  from  day  to  day,  as  it  were,  taking  up 
decimals  today  and  not  knowing  what  is  coming  tomorrow. 
She  should  know  thoroughly  the  whole  field  of  work  and 
make  the  lessons  of  one  day  pave  the  way  for  the  lessons 
of  the  next. 

8.  Typical  Problems.  The  following  problems  are  sug- 
gested as  types  which  may  be  given  with  profit  to  a  third 
grade  class: 

Oral  Exercises 

(i)  The  meat  for  our  dinner  cost  25  cents;  the  coffee, 
10  cents;  the  strawberries,  10  cents;  the  bread,  5  cents; 
the  cream,  5  cents.     Find  the  total  cost. 

(2)  Will's  mother  sent  him  down  town  to  buy  food  for 
breakfast.  The  coffee  cost  20  cents,  the  eggs  17  cents,  the 
butter  20  cents.  How  much  did  the  food  cost?  Will's 
mother  gave  him  $1.     How  much  change  did  he  bring  home? 

(3)  Leo's  wagon  cost  $1.25  and  Jack's  wagon  cost  $2.00. 
Find  the  cost  of  both. 

Written  Exercises 

(1)  I  have  $484  to  be  divided  equally  between  4  men. 
How  much  shall  each  receive? 

(2)  May's  mother  bought  10  yards  of  dress  goods  at 
$.50  a  yard,  and  two  pairs  of  shoes  at  $2  per  pair.  How 
much  did  these  cost? 

(3)  She  also  bought  six  buttons  at  30  cents  a  dozen, 
and  5  spools  of  silk  at  6  cents  a  spool.  How  much  did  these 
cost?    Find  the  cost  of  all  the  material. 

TEST   QUESTIONS 

1.  How  early  in  the  third  year  would  you  place  the 
arithmetic  in  the  hands  of  the  pupils?  Give  your  reasons 
for  your  answer. 


Third  Year  Number  Work  281 

2.  To  what  extent  should  the  teacher  study  a  primary 
arithmetic  before  placing  it  in  the  hands  of  the  class?  Why 
should  the  teacher  keep  more  than  a  lesson  or  two  ahead 
of  the  class  in  any  text-book? 

3.  Why  should  exercises  in  denominate  numbers  begin 
in  the  third  grade?  Why  should  you  use  both  applied  and 
abstract  problems  in  this  grade? 

4.  Give  the  outline  of  an  illustrative  lesson  that  you 
would  use  to  show  the  reductions  in  linear  measure. 

5.  Should  the  pupils  memorize  the  definitions  and  rules 
found  in  the  arithmetic?     Why? 

6.  How  can  strips  of  paper  be  used  to  illustrate  the  lesson 
on  addition  of  fractions?  State  how  you  would  have  the 
paper  prepared,  and  how  the  pupils  should  use  it. 

7.  Outline  an  illustrative  lesson  for  teaching  the  sub- 
traction of  fractions. 

8.  What  work  in  fractions  should  be  done  in  the  third 
grade  ? 

9.  What  relation  do  you  find  between  the  lesson  or 
addition  of  fractions  and  that  on  proportion?  Which  do 
you  consider  the  more  difficult  to  the  pupils?     Why? 

10.  What  are  the  advantages  arising  from  the  intro- 
duction of  decimal  fractions  into  the  third  year's  work? 
Why  do  pupils  in  the  higher  grades  usually  find  decimals 
so  difficult? 


CHAPTER    TEN 

NATURE   STUDY 

INTRODUCTION 

1.  Educational  Purposes.  The  educational  purposes  of 
nature  study  are  as  follows: 

(i)  To  awaken  and  develop  inquiry. 

(2)  To  direct  inquiry  in  such  a  way  that  the  results 
may  be  definite  and  true,  as  well  as  to  develop  interesting 
knowledge  about  nature. 

(3)  To  lead  children  to  study  their  immediate  environ- 
ment in  its  relation  to  themselves,  rather  than  to  study 
the  far-away,  unusual  and  unrelated  things  of  life. 

2.  Why  Nature  Study  is  Important.  (1)  Nature  study 
furnishes  material,  abundant,  interesting,  valuable  and 
varied,  for  lessons  in  language,  reading,  number,  form,  color, 
size,   drawing,   clay  modeling,   sewing,   cutting  and  pasting. 

(2)  It  trains  all  the  special  senses  to  greater  usefulness 
and  develops  the  powers  of  observation,  comparison  and 
reason. 

(3)  It  arouses  sympathy,  kindles  the  imagination,  develops 
kindness  in  word  and  deed,  awakens  reverence  and  strength- 
ens the  will  to  do  right. 

(4)  It  affords  endless  food  for  thought  and  arouses 
interest  in  and  respect  for  patient  labor  and  for  industry 
in  all  its  forms. 

(5)  It  affords  culture  that  is  broad,  varied,  generous 
and  useful  to  the  end  of  life. 

(6)  It  furnishes  much  practical  information,  preparing 
the  way  for  the  future  study  of  botany,  zoology,  geography 
and  kindred  subjects. 

(7)  It  leads  to  a  better  understanding  and  appreciation 
of  art  in  all  its  forms. 

(8)  It  develops  the  power  to  see  and  enjoy  beauty  in 
all  that  God  has  created. 

282 


Nature  Studij  283 

(9)  "That  the  child  may  be  reverent  and  upward- 
looking,  and  that  he  may  come  to  know  himself  as  subject 
to  eternal  laws,  we  would  have  him  study  nature."1 

(10)  "We  have  become  convinced  that  some  intimate, 
sympathetic  acquaintance  with  the  natural  objects  of  the 
earth  and  sky  adds  greatly  to  the  happiness  of  life,  and 
that  this  acquaintance  should  be  begun  in  childhood  and 
be  developed  all  through  youth  and  maturity.  A  brook,  a 
hedgerow  or  a  garden  is  an  inexhaustible  teacher  of  wonder, 
reverence  and  love.  The  scientists  insist  today  on  nature 
study  for  children,  but  we  teachers  ought  long  ago  to  have 
learned  from  the  poets  the  value  of  this  element  in  educa- 
tion. The  idea  of  culture  has  always  included  a  quick  and 
wide  sympathy  with  men;  it  should  hereafter  include  sym- 
pathy with  nature,  and  particularly  with  its  living  forms, 
a  sympathy  based  on  some  accurate  observation  of  nature."2 

3.  Apparatus  Needed.  (a)  Reference  Books.  The 
teacher  should  have  a  few  standard  works  of  reference  on 
botany,  zoology  and  minerals;  also  one  or  more  good  books 
treating  of  nature  study.  None  of  these  needs  to  be  expen- 
sive.    For  suggestions,  see  the  bibliography  on  pages  315-316. 

(b)  Stencils.  Blackboard  stencils  are  inexpensive  and 
will  facilitate  both  the  rapidity  and  accuracy  of  the  black- 
board work.  Stencils  for  nearly  all  well-known  varieties 
of  trees,  shrubs,  flowers,  fruits,  insects,  birds  and  animals 
can  be  procured  at  five  cents  each  or  at  the  rate  of  twenty- 
five  for  one  dollar. 

(c)  Illustrated  Flower  and  Seed  Catalogues. 
These  may  usually  be  obtained  by  writing  to  well-known 
dealers  in  this  line.  These  catalogues  supply  much  useful 
information  difficult  to  get  elsewhere,  and  furnish  good 
models  for  lessons  in  coloring  when  not  enough  natural 
specimens  are  at  hand  to  supply  the  class. 

(d)  Opera  Glasses.  Opera  glasses  with  large  eye  pieces 
are  desirable  if  one  wishes  to  study  the  habits  of  wild  birds. 

1  Sarah  L.  Arnold:     Way  marks  for  Teachers. 

2  Charles  W.  Eliot,  President  Emeritus,  Harvard  University. 


284  Public  School  Methods 

The  timidity  of  the  birds  makes  it  impossible  to  study  them 
at  close  range,  and  the  glasses  enable  the  teacher  to  obtain 
the  information  by  which  she  may  identify  birds  that  the 
children  observe  in  their  rambles  or  drives  about  the  country. 

(e)  A  Microscope.  A  pocket  microscope  is  convenient 
in  the  examination  of  flowers  and  insects  of  the  smaller 
species,  and  when  minute  details  are  to  be  studied,  or  definite 
classifications  made,  it  becomes  a  necessity. 

(f)  Charts.  There  are  good  colored  charts  of  birds, 
animals,  fishes,  insects  and  flowers  that  will  materially  help 
the  work  and  are  not  expensive.  These  are  desirable,  but 
not  indispensable. 

(g)  Note  Books.  In  the  third  grade  each  child  should 
have  a  note  book  in  which  to  record  observations.  These 
books  may  be  homemade,  and  should  be  about  six  inches 
square.  If  used  in  the  primary  grades,  they  should  contain 
but  brief  records.  To  illustrate:  Make  a  general  note  book 
having  at  least  twelve  leaves,  and  give  a  proper  share  to 
each  month.  On  the  cover  print  or  write  in  large  letters, 
Nature  Study,  with  the  owner's  name  and  the  year.  Above 
each  section  place  the  name  of  the  month,  March,  for  instance. 
Have  each  pupil  make  records  like  the  following: 

First  robin,  March  8. 
First  crow,  March  15. 
First  pussy  willow,  March  20. 
First  anemone,  March  29. 

The  records  are  to  be  made  with  neatness,  and  should  be 
kept  for  comparison  in  following  seasons.  This  is  useful, 
and  lends  dignity  and  encouragement  to  the  work. 

Cautions.  (1)  Teachers  who  are  not  able  to  secure  the 
aids  to  study  mentioned  above  should  not  be  discouraged; 
much  can  be  accomplished  even  without  them. 

(2)  Use  familiar,  natural  specimens  belonging  to  the 
immediate  neighborhood,  borrow  pet  birds  and  animals 
belonging  to  the  children  and,  if  possible,  add  to  the  collec- 
tion by  borrowing  stuffed  specimens  from  the  nearest  high 
school  museum. 


Nature  Study  285 

FIRST    YEAR 

4.  Plant  Life.  Plants  afford  the  best  material  for  the 
first  nature  study  lessons.  They  are  easily  procured,  are 
interesting  to  the  children,  and  can  be  handled  as  freely 
as  desired. 

(a)  Purpose  of  Lessons.  The  chief  purpose  in  these 
first  lessons  should  be  so  to  stimulate  and  direct  the  chil- 
dren's interest  in  plants  that  the  whole  life  of  the  plant  will 
be  observed,  so  the  class  will  gain  some  knowledge  of  the 
necessary  conditions  for  the  plant's  growth  and  also  to  dis- 
cover some  interesting  adaptations  made  by  the  plant  in 
supplying  its  needs. 

(b)  Observations.  Observe  a  whole  plant  having  seed. 
Examine  plants  in  the  garden  and  field,  by  the  roadside 
and  in  the  market,  to  find  how  many  have  seeds.  Collect 
some  seeds,  watch  to  see  what  becomes  of  seeds  left 
ungathered.  Observe  as  many  autumn  flowers  as  possible, 
and  note  what  follows  the  flower.  Note  the  condition  of 
plant  life  after  frosts.  Search  for  seeds.  Plant  various 
seeds  out  of  doors,  including  some  that  have  hard  shells, 
and  watch  for  plants  in  the  spring.  Care  for  growing  plants 
during  the  winter,  including  some  bulbs  that  will  bear 
flowers,  watching  the  growth  and  needs  of  the  plant,  and 
noting  the  effects  of  sunlight  on  leaves  and  unfolding  flower 
buds.  In  spring,  note  the  number  and  variety  of  new  plants; 
compare  the  early  flowers  with  those  observed  in  the  fall 
and  winter.  Examine  soil  from  the  field  and  roadside; 
place  it  in  the  schoolroom,  water  it,  and  watch  to  see  if  any 
plants  grow  from  it.  Plant  some  seeds  in  the  schoolroom, 
and  in  the  garden,  also,  including  some  of  those  collected 
during  the  fall,  and  care  for  the  plants,  watching  their 
growth.  Observe  trees  during  the  autumn,  winter  and  spring, 
choosing  several  varieties  different  in  form  and  habit,  if 
possible,  as  the  oak,  willow  and  evergreen.  Note  the  foliage 
while  it  is  green,  also  the  fruit,  if  it  can  be  found,  and  espe- 
cially the  nuts.  Watch  the  changes  in  each  tree  as  cold 
weather  comes.      Note  winter   conditions.      Bring  twigs  of 


286  Public  School  Methods 

as  many  trees  as  possible  into  the  warm  room  and  place 
them  in  water  before  growing  begins  out  of  doors,  in  order 
that  you  may  observe  buds;  also,  watch  for  new  leaves, 
blossoms  and  seeds. 

6.  Animal  Life.  Lessons  on  familiar  animals  can  be 
introduced  soon  after  those  on  plants.  However,  it  is  advis- 
able to  give  enough  lessons  on  plants  to  get  the  children 
accustomed  to  your  plan  of  work  before  taking  up  the  lessons 
on  animals. 

(a)  Purpose  of  Lessons.  The  leading  purpose  in  the 
study  of  animal  life  in  the  first  grade  should  be  to  give  the 
children  a  better  idea  of  the  needs  of  animals  and  a  keener 
sympathy  with  them. 

(b)  Observations.  Observe  any  insects  to  be  found  in 
the  vicinity,  noting  the  number  and  variety  of  each,  where 
they  are  seen  and  what  they  are  doing.  Note  the  changes 
as  the  weather  grows  cold — the  nests,  burrows,  hiding  places, 
cocoons,  storing  of  food.  Look  for  signs  of  insect  life  in  cold 
weather.  If  any  are  seen,  note  under  what  conditions  they 
exist.  With  the  return  of  warm  weather,  watch  cocoons 
and  note  the  reappearance  of  many  forms  of  insect  life  and 
its  activities.  Watch  the  behavior  of  squirrels,  rabbits  or 
other  wild  animals  that  may  be  found  in  the  neighborhood. 
Observe  birds  in  the  fall  to  see  what  they  do.  Watch  any 
that  remain  during  the  winter,  to  see  how  they  secure  food 
and  protection.  Watch  for  the  coming  of  birds  in  the  spring, 
noting  how  they  care  for  their  young  and  what  they  do  to 
get  food,  shelter,  and  protection  from  their  enemies.  Observe 
pets  and  domestic  animals  to  find  what  they  can  do.  Notice 
the  food  needed,  and  how  it  is  secured;  note  their  means  of 
defense  or  escape  from  enemies,  and  their  care  for  and 
defense  of  their  young.  Note  any  parts  or  peculiarities  of 
structure  that  have  significance  in  relation  to  the  activity 
observed. 

Caution.  Always  encourage  reports  of  observations  made 
outside  of  school,  and  of  work  which  you  have  not  directed. 
Different  localities  afford  such  a  range  of  opportunities  that 


Nature  Studtj  287 

no  outline  is  so  valuable  to  follow  as  the  teacher's  own  sum- 
mary of  the  possibilities  of  her  environment  when  on  an 
informal  trip  with  her  pupils.  These  trips  may  be  taken 
after  school  or  on  Saturday  afternoons. 

6.  Minerals.  First  grade  children  are  especially  interested 
in  stones,  and,  if  encouraged  to  do  so,  will  collect  a  large 
number  of  pebbles  and  fragments  of  rock,  noting  their  form, 
color  and  relative  sizes.  The  work  begun  in  this  grade  may 
be  extended  into  those  that  follow,  if  the  interest  and 
material  warrant. 

(a)  Purpose  of  Lessons.  The  main  purpose  of  the 
lessons  should  be  to  lead  the  pupils  to  recognize  and  name 
the  rocks  common  in  their  immediate  locality,  and  to  work 
out  for  themselves  the  simple  physical  problems  of  min- 
eralogy— as  finding  what  rocks  are  harder  than  others, 
learning  the  effect  of  weather  upon  the  rocks,  etc. 

(b)  Observations.  Let  the  children  sort  and  arrange 
in  trays,  or  box  covers,  the  pebbles  and  fragments  of  rock 
which  they  have  collected.  Ask  them  to  tell  the  difference 
in  appearance  between  the  rough,  angular  ones,  and  the 
smooth,  round  ones.  Place  some  small,  rough  fragments 
of  soft  stone  in  a  strong  glass  bottle  and  shake,  to  show 
how  the  roughness  is  worn  off.  Tell  the  children  how  marbles 
are  made. 

(c)  Experiments.  Let  the  children  make  simple  tests 
for  hardness  by  trying  to  scratch  one  pebble  or  rock  with 
another  of  a  different  kind.  They  will  discover  that  quartz 
is  hardest,  and  that  it  will  scratch  glass.  Under  the  teacher's 
direction  they  can  also  test  their  specimens  for  lime.  To 
do  this,  procure  from  a  drug  store  a  small  bottle  of  hydro- 
chloric (muriatic)  acid,  and  allow  the  children  to  place  a 
drop  on  the  specimen  to  be  tested.  If  the  acid  foams,  lime 
is  present.  A  needle,  hat  pin,  or  a  piece  of  wire  may  be 
used  to  place  the  acid  on  the  stone. 

Caution.  Hydrochloric  acid  is  poison,  and  under  no 
circumstances  should  children  be  allowed  to  perform  this 
experiment    except    under    the    direct    supervision    of    the 


288  Public  School  Methods 

teacher.  When  purchased,  the  acid  should  be  put  in  a  glass- 
stoppered  bottle  and  labeled  poison.  It  should  be  placed 
in  a  locked  case  in  the  schoolroom,  and  the  teacher  only 
should  carry  the  key.  Unless  these  precautions  can  be 
observed,  the  experiment  should  not  be  attempted. 

7.  Natural  Forces.  Many  of  the  common  phenomena  of 
nature,  such  as  the  succession  of  day  and  night,  the 
work  of  the  wind,  rain  and  snow,  and  the  changes  in  the 
weather,  are  a  constant  source  of  wonder  to  children, 
and  they  are  at  once  interested  in  anything  that  will 
give  them  more  definite  knowledge  of  natural  forces. 
Through  conversational  lessons  and  in  other  ways  the 
teacher  can  lead  the  children  to  observe  these  forces  more 
olosely. 

Observations.  Notice  the  effects  of  wind  in  moving 
objects  on  land  and  in  making  waves.  Observe  the  sources 
of  heat — rubbing,  pounding,  fire  and  sun.  Notice  the  effects 
of  heat  in  melting,  burning,  cooking,  etc.  Make  simple 
experiments  showing  the  effects  of  heat  on  the  candle,  on 
snow  and  ice,  sugar,  lead,  etc.  Use  the  magnet  on  iron 
filings.  Spread  the  filings  on  paper  and  place  the  magnet 
underneath.  Use  it  again  on  nails,  tacks  and  other  small 
objects  made  of  iron.  Make  a  triangular  prism  by  fasten- 
ing together  three  strips  of  glass  one  inch  wide  and  four 
inches  long.  Paste  strips  of  paper  \  or  \  inches  wide 
around  the  pieces  of  glass  at  each  end  of  the  prism  to 
hold  them  in  place.  Use  this  piece  of  apparatus  for 
showing  the  prismatic  colors  in  the  sunbeam.  The  experi- 
ment is  much  more  effective  if  performed  in  a  dark 
room. 

8.  Study  of  the  Weather.  Keep  regular  observations  of 
the  weather.  Notice  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun,  the 
fall  of  rain  or  snow,  the  change  of  temperature  between  day 
and  night,  the  appearance  of  the  sky,  and  the  direction  of 
the  wind.  If  a  large  weather  calendar  is  kept  on  the  board, 
most  of  these  observations  can  be  recorded  upon  it.  See 
Volume  Two,  pages  20-22,  Section  11. 


Nature  Study  289 

SECOND    YEAR 

9.  Plant  Life.  Note  food  products  from  plants,  and  the 
part  of  the  plant  so  used.  Study  the  harvesting,  storing 
and  preparing  of  various  parts  for  use.  Ask  the  children 
to  tell  who  does  all  this  work.  Note  the  fruits  and  nuts 
in  the  markets  that  do  not  grow  in  our  climate,  and  con- 
sider where  they  are  grown.  Compare  these  with  home- 
grown products.  Consider  the  needs  in  transportation  and 
how  they  are  met.  Study  the  work  of  planting  and  caring 
for  some  of  the  crops  that  supply  food.  Consider  the  amount 
of  seed  that  must  be  used,  and  how  it  is  secured.  Note 
and  make  a  similar  study  of  parts  of  plants  used  in  making 
cloth,  in  building  houses,  boats,  etc.,  and  in  making  other 
necessary  articles.  Plant  seeds  of  common  grains,  and  watch 
and  care  for  the  plants.  Plant  flower  seeds,  care  for  the 
plants  and  compare  them  with  wild  flower  plants.  Make  a 
study  of  trees  near  the  school,  especially  of  their  uses  for 
shade    beauty,  fruit,  etc. 

10.  Animal  Life.  Observe  work  done  by  such  animals 
as  the  horse  and  dog.  Note  the  fitness  of  the  animal  for 
its  work,  as  to  strength,  size,  form  or  keenness  of  sense. 
Note  the  animal  products  used  for  food  and  clothing;  as 
milk,  butter,  wool.  Study  the  preparation  or  processes 
necessary  in  connection  with  each.  Note  the  food  of  wild 
birds  and  the  relation  they  bear  to  plant  protection.  Study 
domestic  fowls.  Observe  insects  in  relation  to  plant  life, 
and  note  the  stage  or  phase  of  development  in  which  the 
insects  eat  most.    Note  the  means  of  protection,  as  color,  etc. 

11.  Natural  Forces.  Note  the  necessities  for  heat  and 
light,  and  observe  the  materials  used  in  securing  them — 
various  kinds  of  fuel  and  oil,  gas  and  electricity.  Study 
the  preparation  or  processes  necessary  to  the  utilization  of 
these  materials  for  light  and  heat.  Observe  and  compare 
water -worn  pebbles  and  broken  fragments  of  sandstone, 
granite  and  other  kinds  of  stone  available.  Observe  worn 
stones  in  buildings,  pavements,  steps,  street-curb,  and 
account  for  what  is  noticed.     Find  crystals  in  stones,  frost, 


290  Public  School  Methods 

rock  candy,  etc.  Make  solutions  and  observe  the  formation 
of  crystals.  Examine  soils  and  compare  sand,  clay  and 
garden  soil.  Note  the  action  of  frost  on  water  and  on  soil. 
Observe  evaporation  and  condensation  of  moisture.  Note 
that  steam  is  a  lifting  or  pushing  force,  and  observe  the 
work  it  is  made  to  do.  Note  the  work  done  by  electricity, 
and  consider  its  value  and  importance. 

12.  Weather  Conditions.  These  should  be  noted  accu- 
rately, including  the  reading  of  the  thermometer.  Observe 
clouds.  Watch  the  relation  between  temperature  and  the 
direction  of  wind  and  cloudiness,  dew,  frost,  rain  or  snow. 
Consider  the  relation  of  weather  conditions  to  the  condi- 
tion of  growing  plants,  the  supply  of  moisture  and  heat, 
effects  of  cold  wind,  late  or  early  frost.  Picture  conditions 
in  different  parts  of  the  country  at  the  same  time  of  year. 
Note  the  varying  position  of  the  sun  at  sunrise  and  sunset 
during  the  year.  Observe  phases  of  the  moon,  and  watch 
the  sky  at  night  to  find  certain  stars,  as  the  North  star. 
Observe  the  use  of  the  compass,  and  consider  the  conditions 
under  which  it  is  needed,  as  at  sea  in  storms.  Watch  the 
effect  of  storms  and  note  the  relations  between  all  phases 
of  the  weather  and  human  life. 

13.  Summary.  From  the  foregoing  Sections  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  work  of  the  second  year  varies  from  that  of 
the  first  in  degree  only.  The  same  classes  of  objects  are 
studied,  and  observations  are  carried  on  along  the  same 
lines  of  investigation.  The  pupils  are  a  little  more  mature 
and  will  notice  some  details  which  they  passed  over  in  the 
first  grade.  They  will  also  be  able  to  make  broader  applica- 
tion of  the  facts  and  principles  gleaned  from  their  study. 

THIRD    YEAR 

14.  The  Work  Expanded.  Continue  and  expand  the 
work.  More  accurate  and  more  detailed  work  may  be 
expected.  Third  grade  children  are  capable  of  more  consec- 
utive work,  can  make  more  valuable  deductions  from  observa- 
tions,  and   can   express   their   observations   more    freely   in 


THE  RORTX'S  NEST 
A  photograph  from  life. 


Nature  Study  291 

writing,  cutting,  drawings  and  color  work.  From  the  direc- 
tions printed  on  the  rolls  of  "blue-print"  or  "brown-print" 
paper,  procured  at  a  small  cost  from  a  photographic  supply 
house,  they  can  make  prints  of  plants  grown  in  the  garden, 
flowers  found,  leaves  gathered  from  trees  which  they  have 
recognized,  etc.  They  can  make  plant  presses  as  follows: 
Saw  out  two  pieces  of  half-inch  board  about  6  inches  by  8 
inches,  and  \  inch  thick;  place  newspaper  between  these  to 
absorb  the  moisture  from  the  plants,  and  put  around  them 
a  book  strap  to  tighten  the  press.  If  the  children  are  encour- 
aged they  will  make  collections  of  nature  material  for  the 
busy  teacher,  and  will  be  responsible  for  the  care  of  plants 
or  animals  used  in  this  study  of  unusual  interest. 

TYPE    STUDIES 

15.  Our  Tree.  (a)  General  Plan  of  Lesson.  In 
graded  schools  let  each  room,  each  class,  or,  if  preferred, 
each  child,  select  a  tree  near  the  school  building  for  par- 
ticular study.  In  rural  schools  one  child,  or  groups  of  a  few 
children,  may  select  trees.  In  all  cases  the  selection  should 
be  made  when  the  school  begins  in  the  fall. 

The  tree  is  full  of  possibilities.  In  autumn  its  general 
form  as  compared  with  the  forms  of  other  trees  should  be 
noticed.  Its  leaves,  particularly  their  change  of  color, 
should  receive  attention,  and  the  falling  of  the  leaves  may 
also  be  considered.  What  reasons  can  be  found  for  the 
leaves  being  larger  on  one  side  of  the  tree?  Investigation 
will  show  this  to  be  due. to  a  more  favorable  position  in 
reference  to  the  sun,  and,  to  some  extent,  to  a  shelter  from 
prevailing  winds. 

In  the  winter  the  tree  should  be  studied  when  stripped 
of  its  foliage,  and  its  plan  of  branching  should  be  noted. 
Third  grade  pupils  can  make  a  sketch  of  the  plan.  The 
advantage  to  the  tree  of  not  having  leaves  during  winter 
should  also  be  noted,  especially  in  those  regions  where  there 
are  heavy  falls  of  snow.  The  snow  would  gather  upon  the 
leaves  and  break  the  branches  with  its  weight. 


292  Public  School  Methods 

In  the  spring  the  renewal  of  life,  the  putting  forth  of 
buds,  leaves  and  blossoms  awakens  new  interest,  and  this 
naturally  leads  to  another  interest — the  tree  as  the  home 
of  animals  and  birds.  The  uses  of  the  tree  to  man  should 
follow  this  study. 

(b)  Records.  The  record  of  the  tree  study  should  con- 
sist of  drawings,  colored  pictures  and  written  notes.  First, 
a  drawing  should  be  made  of  the  tree  as  a  whole.  As  the 
tree  makes  decided  changes  in  appearance,  these  should 
be  reported.  Drawings  of  the  twigs  as  they  change  should 
be  made.  These  gradually  accumulated  records  are  a 
great  delight  and  an  excellent  means  of  development 
to  the  children.  Together  with  the  year's  written  and 
oral  work  on  the  subject,  they  make  material  for  the 
Arbor  Day  program,  the  real  value  of  which  can  readily 
be  appreciated. 

16.  The  Robin.  This  is  one  of  the  birds  that  should  be 
studied  very  carefully,  especially  by  the  children  of  the 
first  and  second  grades,  as  a  foundation  for  all  further 
observations  on  birds.  The  following  plan  has  proved  suc- 
cessful in  both  city  and  rural  schools: 

(a)  Arrivals  in  Spring.  Make  a  great  point  of  the 
arrival  of  the  first  robin.  Suggest  watching  for  him  several 
days  before  the  date  of  his  usual  arrival  in  your  neighbor- 
hood. Write  on  the  board  the  date  and  the  fact  of  the 
return  of  the  robin,  and  encourage  the  pupils  to  keep  notes 
at  their  desks,  as  well,  of  the  arrival  of  the  various  birds, 
flowers,  etc. 

(b)  Habits.  Encourage  the  children  to  observe  the 
actions  of  the  robin,  so  easy  to  approach.  Praise  those  who 
can  tell  just  how  he  gets  the  worm  out  of  the  ground,  and 
whether  he  hops  or  walks. 

(c)  Nest  and  Young.  If  possible,  get  reports  on  the 
building  of  the  nest,  the  sharing  of  the  work,  and  the  feed- 
ing of  the  young.  Urge  careful  and  exact  observations. 
Tell  how  great  scientists  will  watch  for  hours  to  find  out 
exactly  how  a  bird  lines  the  nest,  for  instance.     If  allowed,  go 


Nature  Study  293 

with  the  children    to   make   bird   and  other   nature  obser- 
vations. 

(d)  Correlated  Subjects.  Use  the  material  offered 
about  the  robin  in  oral  English,  written  English  and  in 
drawing,  cutting,  color  work,  etc.,  as  seat  work;  tell  the 
story  of  How  the  Robin  Got  his  Red  Breast,  or  read  the  poem. 
Let  the  young  children  make  up  a  simple  play  to  show  the 
nesting,  etc.;  use  the  picture  of  the  robin  on  the  nest  (see 
page  292),  and  a  stuffed  specimen,  if  procurable.  Let  the 
children  try  to  imitate  the  robin's  rain  call. 

(e)  Literature.  Nature  Study  arid  Related  Subjects,  by 
Jackman,  published  by  the  Macmillan  Company,  and  any 
of  the  manuals  on  our  North  American  birds  will  be  helpful 
to  the  teacher.  The  Birds  of  Killingworth  and  Emperor's 
Bird  Nest,  by  Longfellow,  are  good  to  read  to  the  children. 

(f)  Riddle.  The  following  riddle  was  composed  as  a 
class  exercise  by  a  first  grade  class,  to  be  answered  by  a 
second  grade  class: 

Did  you  hear  my  song  this  morning? 

I  love  to  sing  at  sunrise. 

I  will  sing  you  a  song  at  sunset,  too. 

People  say,  "Spring  is  here,"  when  they  hear  my  song. 

My  dress  is  brown  and  gray. 

My  breast  is  reddish  brown. 

My  cousin  has  a  red  breast. 

We  build  our  nest  very  strong. 

It  is  lined  with  mud. 

Over  this  we  put  nice,  soft  grass. 

Our  eggs  are  bluish  green  with  tiny  brown  spots. 

How  fast  I  can  run. 

I  run  about  on  the  ground  to  catch  worms. 

Did  you  ever  see  me  fly  with  a  worm  in  my  bill? 

Have  you  ever  seen  me  feed  my  babies? 

They  like  worms  to  eat. 

I  like  ripe  cherries. 

We  are  building  a  nest  in  one  of  your  trees. 

Do  you  know  my  name? 

(g)  A  Poem.  The  following  poem,  How  Do  the  Robins 
Build  Their  Nests,  can  be  used  to  advantage: 


294  Public  School  Methods 

How  do  the  robins  build  their  nests? 
Robin  Red  Breast  told  me; 
First,  a  wisp  of  yellow  hay 
In  a  pretty  round  they  lay; 
Then  some  shreds  of  downy  floss, 
Feathers,  too,  and  bits  of  moss, 
Woven  with  a  sweet,  sweet  song, 
This  way,  that  way,  and  across; 
That's  what  Robin  told  me. 

Where  do  the  robins  hide  their  nests? 
Robin  Red  Breast  told  me; 
Up  among  the  leaves  so  deep, 
Where  the  sunbeams  rarely  creep, 
Long  before  the  winds  are  cold, 
Long  before  -the  leaves  are  gold 
Bright  eyed  stars  will  peep  and  see 
Baby  Robins — one,  two,  three: 
That's  what  Robin  told  me. 

17.  The  Study  of  Bulbs.  There  is  no  line  of  nature  study 
work  that  repays  one  more  fully  for  the  time  spent  upon 
it  than  the  study  of  bulbs.  The  work,  when  once  started, 
can  be  left  almost  entirely  to  the  children,  and  it  gives 
them  an  opportunity  which  they  enjoy — that  of  finding 
out  things  for  themselves.  Specific  directions  for  obser- 
vations need  to  be  given,  and  occasional  reports  should  be 
called  for.  With  these  exceptions,  the  work  will  be  largely 
informal.  The  following  plan  will  serve  as  a  guide  to  the 
teacher : 

(i)  Early  in  winter  start  a  few  bulbs,  some,  as  the  Chinese 
lily,  in  water;  others,  as  the  narcissus  and  jonquil,  in  soil 
placed  in  flower  pots.  Make  a  record  of  the  date  of  plant- 
ing. In  buildings  where  the  fire  is  allowed  to  go  out  over 
Sunday  and  at  night,  the  pots  and  jars  should  be  placed 
where  the  plants  will  not  get  chilled. 

(2)  Encourage  the  children  to  observe  the  bulbs  each 
morning  when  they  enter  the  room  and  to  notice  the  changes 
that  occur  from  day  to  day ;  then  see  that  they  have  a  regular 
period  each  day  for  recording  in  their  note  books  the  changes 


Nature  Study  295 

they  have  noticed.  First  and  second  grade  children  should 
not  be  expected  to  record  their  observations.  Detail  certain 
children  to  measure  the  plants  at  regular  intervals,  as  once 
a  week  or  once  in  three  days,  and  thus  determine  their 
rapidity  of  growth.  Emphasize  the  importance  of  care  in 
all  this  work,  and  impress  upon  the  pupils  the  importance 
of  exactness  in  all  observations  and  statements.  Detail 
other  children  to  water  the  plants  and  give  them  such  other 
care  as  they  may  need.  If  the  class  is  large,  these  details 
should  be  changed  each  week,  so  all  the  pupils  may  feel 
that  they  have  a  share  in  the  work. 

(3)  Encourage  third  grade  children  to  keep  complete 
records  of  their  observations,  and  occasionally  have  them 
write  reports  as  a  language  exercise.  Have  the  reports  read 
in  the  class,  and  from  them  summarize  the  work  done.  The 
reports  will  show  that  one  child  is  especially  interested  in 
the  rapidity  of  growth,  another  in  the  plant's  absorption  of 
water,  another  in  the  blossoms,  and  so  on,  and  all  the 
points  brought  out  will  show  quite  a  wide  range  of  observa- 
tion. The  interest  will  increase  as  the  work  develops, 
and,  in  addition  to  the  pleasure  derived  from  having 
the  blossoms  to  brighten  the  room  in  midwinter,  much 
profitable  work  will  be  done  by  the  pupils. 

A  few  reports  from  a  third  grade  are  given  to  show  the 
extent  and  variety  of  observations  and  the  problems  which 
the  children  tried  to  solve: 

THREE    BULBS 

(1)  The  narcissus  bulb  we  planted  in  the  sun  grew  very  slowly 
The  one  we  planted  in  the  shade  grew  a  little  faster.  It  had  better 
roots  and  a  larger  shoot.  The  one  we  planted  in  the  dark  got  the 
best  start.  It  made  many  white  roots  soon.  Its  leaves  came,  too, 
but  they  were  pale.  When  it  had  a  good  start  we  put  it  in  a  place 
that  was  not  so  dark.  Then  we  put  it  in  a  shady  place.  Then  we 
stood  it  in  the  sun.  It  is  the  best  of  the  three.  It  is  going  to 
blossom.     The  other  two  are  not  growing  much. 

(2)  Every  morning  we  pour  water  into  our  bulb  jars.  They 
stand  on  the  window  sill.     We  find  that  by  afternoon  much  of  the 


296  Public  School  Methods 

water  is  gone.  It  has  disappeared.  Jars  of  different  shapes  lose 
different  amounts  of  water.  We  want  to  know  how  it  leaves.  Does 
the  plant  use  any?  Does  moisture  go  off  into  the  air, from  the  sur- 
face of  the  water?     If  the  plant  uses  water,  where  does  it  keep  it? 

(3)  Mr.  Nabour  placed  the  roots  of  a  lily  in  a  jar  of  water.  Then 
he  sealed  the  top  around  the  stalk.  The  water  could  get  out  only 
through  the  leaves  of  the  lily.  On  Wednesday,  December  4,  1908, 
the  jar  weighed  390^  grams.  On  Monday,  December  9,  it  weighed 
379 J  grams.  So  in  five  days  the  plant  transpired  11  grams  of  water. 
That  is  about  2  grams  a  day. 

(4)  By  January  8  every  bit  of  water  had  left  the  bottle  we  sealed. 
It  had  gone  through  the  leaves  of  the  plant.  The  leaves  are  dry 
and  tough  now.  They  are  dead.  The  bulb  is  dry,  too,  and  small. 
It  is  shrivelled.     The  roots  of  it  are  like  old  threads. 

(5)  We  broke  off  the  end  of  a  leaf.  The  water  just  poured  out 
in  drops.  The  leaf  seemed  like  a  green  water  pipe.  One  end  was 
in  the  bulb  and  the  other  end  we  broke  off.  The  flower  buds  and 
the  flowers  are  very  full  of  water.     They  are  very  fragrant. 

(6)  We  tied  rulers  to  some  of  our  Chinese  lilies.  We  tied  them 
so  we  could  see  how  fast  they  grew.  Our  tallest  lily  grew  i\  inches 
from  Wednesday,  November  27,  to  Monday,  December  2.  Then 
it  grew  i\  inches  from  Monday,  December  2,  to  Wednesday,  Decem- 
ber 4.  Walter's  was  9^  inches  high  on  Wednesday,  December  4th, 
and  just  a  foot  high  on  Wednesday,  December  11.  So  it  grew  i\ 
inches  in  one  week. 

(7)  The  Chinese  lily  that  stands  where  the  sunshine  reaches  it 
most  of  the  time  has  grown  the  fastest.  It  has  the  largest  leaves, 
and  it  has  beautiful  flowers.  The  lily  that  stands  in  the  shadow 
of  the  casement  has  grown  slowest.  It  has  the  smallest  leaves  and 
it  hasn't  even  buds  yet. 

(8)  The  flowers  turned  brown.  They  felt  like  paper.  They 
were  so  dry  outside.  We  opened  the  thick  green  part.  We  did 
not  see  it  when  the  blossom  was  new.  It  grew  large  afterward. 
The  green  part  had  little  wet  seeds  in  it.  We  think  it  would  be  a 
good  plan  to  plant  them.     We  don't  know  what  would  grow. 

(9)  After  the  plant  has  blossomed,  the  leaves  droop.  They  fall 
over,  and  we  can't  make  them  stand  up.  Then  they  turn  yellow 
or  brown.  No  water  comes  out  when  we  break  off  the  end  of  the 
leaf.  The  flowers  wither  after  a  while.  Then  they  don't  smell 
good  at  all. 

18.  The  Squirrel.  The  following  outline  of  the  plan  for 
the  study  of  a  live  squirrel  can  be  used  as  well  for  the  study 
of  any  other  animal  that   is  easily  secured;  a  rabbit,  a  cat, 


Nature  Study  297 

or  a  dog  will  serve  the  purpose  as  well.  The  general  plan 
can  be  followed  with  any  of  these,  but  the  details  and  facts 
must  be  changed  to  fit  the  animal  studied.  The  compar- 
ative feature  emphasized  in  the  study  shows  how  lessons 
on  animals  can  be  correlated  with  physiology  so  as  to  make 
each  lend  interest  to  and  strengthen  the  other. 

(a)  Purpose  of  the  Lesson.  As  function  is  at  least  one 
of  the  causes  of  structure,  according  to  the  best  authorities, 
reasoning  from  function  to  structure  seems  to  be  the  scientific 
method.  The  child's  keen  interest  is  in  the  activities  of  the 
animal ;  so,  using  these  activities  as  a  basis,  it  is  not  difficult 
to  lead  the  pupil  to  reason  from  motion,  as  a  cause,  to  struc- 
ture, as  a  result. 

(b)  Plan.  The  squirrel  was  kept  in  a  roomy  cage  in  a 
well-lighted  dressing  room.  The  children  were  sent  in  by 
squads  to  make  careful  observation.  By  this  arrangement, 
each  one  had  a  chance  to  observe  for  himself,  carefully  and 
quietly,  without  interruption.  Directions  were  given  as  to 
what  should  be  observed  particularly;  as,  "Notice  how  he 
moves,  and  compare  with  the  way  you  move;"  or,  "Com- 
pare his  sense  of  smell  with  yours."  Very  often  the  oral 
lessons  were  given  without  the  squirrel's  presence,  to  see 
exactly  how  far  each  child  had  been  able  to  observe,  com- 
pare and  draw  conclusions  when  alone.  The  habit  of  indi- 
vidual observation — accurate  and  thoughtful  observation 
without  the  immediate  stimulus  of  the  oral  lesson — should 
come  first.  That  accomplished,  the  oral  lesson  seldom  fails 
to  effect  a  valuable  re-imaging  of  what  has  previously  been 
observed,  compared  and  reasoned  about,  besides  correcting 
and  developing  the  crude  ideas  gained. 

(c)  The  Outline.  The  following  outline  is  valuable  in 
planning  a  series  of  lessons  on  the  study.  It  enables  the 
teacher  to  see  the  entire  plan  at  once,  and, '  consequently, 
the  relation  which  each  lesson  sustains  to  those  that  follow. 
The  outline  should  not  be  placed  before  first  or  second  grade 
pupils;  if  vised  with  pupils  in  the  third  grade  it  should  be 
constructed,  section  by  section,  as  the  lessons  proceed: 


298 


Public  School  Methods 


THE    BOY    AND    THE    SQUIRREL 
I.  General  Observation  of  Both: 


(i)  Arms 


(2)  Legs 


(3)  Trunk 


Compare 
Functions 
of  Each 


Resultant 
Structure 


Compare 
Functions 
of  Each 


Resultant 
Structure 


Comparative 
Function 


Resultant 
Structure 


Boy 

Squirrel 

Boy 

Squirrel 
Boy 

Squirrel 
Boy 

Squirrel 

Boy 

Squirrel 
Boy 


1.  Works  with  arms. 

2.  Grasps  with  hands. 

3.  Makes  things. 

1.  Climbs,  using  arms  but 

little. 

2.  Grasps  nuts  and  limbs. 

3.  Does  no  delicate  work. 

fi.  Short  nails. 
2.  Four     fingers     and     a 
thumb. 

(1.  Bony  arms. 
2.  Long,     sharp,     curved 
claws,  thumb  lacking. 

fi.  Walks. 

[2.  Does  not  hang  by  feet. 

11.  Leaps — walks  little. 
2.  Climbs  and  hangs  body 
from  feet. 

11.  Muscular — calf     devel- 
oped. 
2.  Cannot  grasp  with  feet. 

1.  Upper  leg  muscle  very 

large. 

2.  Calf      almost      lacking. 

Hind  feet  very  strong. 

j       Bends     and     stretches 
\  trunk  little. 

/       Continual  rapid,  violent 
1  movement. 

/      Trunk  not  very  limber 
\  or  elastic. 


ca    •      1     /      Trunk    extremely    lim- 
|  ber  and  elastic. 


Nature  Study 


299 


(4)   Covering 
and 
Movement 


Comparative 
Function 


Resultant 
Structure 


II.  Special  Functions: 


(1)   Eating 


Comparative 
Function 


Resultant 
Structure 


Boy 


Boy- 


Squirrel 


Boy 


Squirrel 


Boy 


Squirrel 


Squirrel 


1.  Uses    artificial    protec- 

tion   of    house    and 
clothes,  etc. 

2.  Stretches  skin  very  little. 

1 .  Fur  protects  him  in  hot, 

cold        and        rainy 
weather. 

2.  Tail    used    for    blanket 

and  for  screen. 

3.  Stretches    skin    contin- 

ually in  moving. 

1.  Skin     delicate,     almost 

without      protective 
hairs. 

2.  Skin    tender,    inelastic 

and  close  to  flesh. 

1.  Coarse,  waterproof  hair 

with  winter  under-fur. 

2.  Tail  large  and  bushy. 

3.  Skin  tough,  elastic  and 

apart  from  body. 

1.  Bites  soft  food. 

2.  Eats  flesh. 

3.  Apprehends  with  hands. 

1.  Gnaws  nuts  and  bark. 

2.  Eats  no  flesh. 

3.  Often  apprehends  with 

mouth. 

1.  Small,    blunt    incisors; 

thin  enamel. 

2.  Tearing  teeth. 

3.  Entire  lip. 

1.  Large,   strong  incisors, 

formed  for  gnawing; 
very    thick    enamel. 

2.  Tearing  teeth  wanting. 

3.  Split  upper  lip. 


300 


Public  School  Methods 


Comparative 

Boy 

Looks  forward — friends. 

Function            < 

Squirrel     < 

Must      see 
enemies. 

at      side — 

(2) 

Seeing 

Boy 

Eyes  in  front  and  set  in. 

Resultant 

Sight  not  very  keen. 

Structure 

Squirrel 

Eyes  on  sid< 
k           ing  out; 

i  and  stand- 
keen  sight. 

Uses     the 

sense     less ; 

other    faculties    em- 

Boy 

ployed 

in      finding 

Comparative 

food. 

Functions 

Hides   food, 

and    prob- 

Squirrel      < 

ably  smells  it  out  to 

(3) 

Smelling    < 

I 

get  it. 

' 

Nose  delicate  and  sense 

Boy 

delicate 

but      not 

Resultant 

strong. 

Structure 

| 

Nose  tough 

and  shaped 

Squirrel      < 

for  smelli 
Sense  fairly 

ng  out  food, 
acute. 

(d)  Illustrative  Lessons  The  following  exercises 
show  how  the  outline  can  be  applied.  They  are  reproduced 
just  as  they  were  given : 

HOW    FRISKY    EATS 

Frisky  at  Dinner  and  Johnny  at  Dinner 

Lesson  I 

Teacher:  You  have  all  watched  Frisky  eating  his  dinner; 
now  tell  us  what  you  saw. 

Henry:  Frisky  picked  up  a  nut  and  gnawed  and  gnawed 
and  gnawed  at  the  shell  until  he  made  a  hole  in  it.  Then 
he  picked  out  the  kernel  with  his  teeth,  pushed  it  back  in 
his  mouth,  and  chewed  it  up  in  a  great  hurry. 


Nature  Study  301 

Mary:  The  squirrel  eats  fast,  as  if  he  were  afraid  we 
would  take  the  nuts  away  from  him. 

Emma:  Frisky  gnawed  through  the  shell  with  his  front 
teeth  and  chewed  the  meat  with  his  back  teeth. 

Teacher:  How  is  that  different  from  the  way  in  which 
you  eat? 

Nellie:  Why,  of  course  we  bite  things  with  our  front 
teeth  and  chew  with  the  back  teeth  just  as  he  does,  but  we 
hardly  ever  gnaw  things. 

Tom:  Yes,  and  we  have  knives  and  forks  so  we  needn't 
pick  out  things  with  our  teeth. 

Teacher:  Touch  your  front  teeth.  What  do  you  use 
them  for? 

Helen:     I  take  bites  of  things  with  mine. 

Teacher:  The  front  teeth — the  teeth  you  bite  or  cut 
your  food  with — are  called  incisors;  sounds  like  scissors, 
doesn't  it?  The  back  teeth,  that  you  use  like  a  mill  in 
grinding  your  food,  are  called  molars. 

Jennie:  Oh,  I  saw  Frisky's  incisors  just  as  plainly.  They 
were  long  and  red. 

Henry:  I  saw  them,  too.  They  were  worn  away  at  the 
back,  and  they  had  a  sharp  edge  in  front.  They  looked  to 
me  a  great  deal  like  rats'  teeth. 

Teacher:    Tell  me  other  things  they  looked  like. 

Emma:    They  looked  like  the  cut  ends  of  flowers. 

Tom:    They  looked  a  little  bit  like  my  father's  chisel. 

Helen:     They  looked  like  the  edge  of  an  axe. 

Teacher:  They  are  often  called  chisel-shaped.  Are  they 
like  a  chisel  in  any  other  way,  Tom? 

Tom:  Yes,  he  uses  them  something  as  my  father  uses 
his  chisel,  but  he  doesn't  let  the  little  chips  fly,  though. 

Henry:  There  are  two  chisels  working  together.  When 
Frisky  yawned,  I  saw  all  his  teeth.  There  were  four 
long,  narrow  ones  in  front,  two  up  and  two  down.  Then 
there  were  some  back  ones.  They  were  rough.  But  he 
hadn't  any  where  my  dog  has  long,  sharp  teeth.  I  can 
make   a    picture   of  his  teeth   on   the  board.     I  think  that 


302  Public  School  Methods 

his  incisors  must  be  pretty  strong,  not  to  break  when  he  is 
gnawing. 

Teacher:  But  you  told  me  they  were  worn  away  in 
the  back. 

Henry:  They  were  in  the  back,  but  not  in  the  front. 
The  front  part  looks  different  from  the  back  part. 

Teacher:  If  the  back  part  is  worn  down,  and  the  front 
part  is  not,  what  is  true  of  the  front  part? 

Henry:    Why,  it  must  be  harder. 

Teacher:  Tap  your  teeth.  That  hard  outside  covering 
is  called  enamel.  The  softer  bony  part  inside  is  called  den- 
tine. Compare  the  enamel  of  Frisky's  teeth  with  the  enamel 
of  your  teeth. 

Mary:  Frisky's  is  on  the  front  of  the  teeth  and  ours 
is  all  over  the  outside. 

Emma:  I  think  his  must  be  thicker  and  stronger  because 
he  cracks  hard  nuts  with  his  teeth,  and  I  broke  a  big  piece 
off  of  my  tooth  yesterday  when  I  tried  to  crack  a  nut. 

Teacher:     Is  it  right  for  us  to  break  nuts  with  our  teeth? 

Helen:  No,  it  isn't,  because  it  spoils  our  teeth.  They 
weren't  made  to  crack  nuts  with,  and  Frisky's  were. 

Nellie:  We  have  hammers  to  crack  our  nuts  and  Frisky 
hasn't. 

Tom:  Yes,  and  besides,  Frisky  lives  on  nuts,  and  that 
is  the  only  way  he  knows  how  to  open  them,  and  we  have 
other  things  to  eat;  anyway,  we  are  smart  enough  to  break 
off  the  shell,  so  we  don't  need  teeth  like  his. 

Lesson  II 

Teacher:  Yesterday  someone  said  that  the  squirrel  had 
no  teeth  where  the  dog  had  such  long,  sharp  ones.  How 
does  your  dog  use  those  teeth,  Henry? 

Tom:  I  watched  Bruno  this  morning  when  he  had  a 
piece  of  meat  between  his  paws.  He  put  the  end  of  the 
meat  in  his  mouth  sideways,  and  then  pulled  his  head  back. 
That  is  the  way  he  tore  off  a  bite  with  his  side  teeth. 

Teacher:    What  things  have  you  seen  Frisky  eat? 


Nature  Study  303 

Helen:  He  ate  some  nuts  and  a  piece  of  apple  and  a 
cracker  this  morning. 

Teacher:    Does  he  ever  eat  meat? 

Henry:  No,  I  don't  think  he  does,  for  I  tried  him  and 
he  just  sniffed  at  it  and  jumped  away.  I  read  that  squirrels 
never  eat  meat. 

Teacher:  Why  do  you  think  he  hasn't  those  tearing 
teeth  ? 

Henry:  He  doesn't  eat  meat  or  things  he  has  to  tear, 
so  he  doesn't  need  them. 

Nellie:  I  found  out  something  no  one  has  said.  The 
split  in  his  lips  opens  when  he  takes  a  big  nut. 

Teacher:  How  much  of  the  apples  and  the  nut  kernels 
does  the  squirrel  eat? 

Emma:  He  ate  every  bit  of  what  I  gave  him  yes- 
terday. 

Helen:  He  ate  all  but  the  skin  of  the  apple  I  gave 
him. 

Mary:  Why,  he  was  so  saucy  to  me;  he  only  tasted 
what  I  gave  him  and  then  threw  it  on  the  floor. 

Teacher:  How  is  that;  yesterday  he  ate  all  and  today 
he  only  eats  part? 

Tom:  Maybe  he  Kvas  hungrier  yesterday.  Maybe  he 
has  too  much  now.  Perhaps  we  have  given  him  too  many 
things. 

Nellie:  My  mother  says  that  is  always  the  way.  When 
we  are  hungry  we  will  eat  all  of  our  bread  and  butter,  and 
when  we  aren't  we  won't  eat  the  crust.  Maybe  he  is  like 
some  people.  When  they  are  poor  they  are  careful,  but 
when  they  get  rich  they  are  careless. 

Teacher:  What  have  you  noticed  about  the  care  he 
takes  of  his  teeth? 

Mary:  I  saw  him  clean  his  teeth  with  his  tongue  as  soon 
as  he  had  finished  eating. 

Henry:  I  saw  something  cuter  than  that.  I  saw  him  use 
the  tip  of  his  tail  for  a  toothbrush  after  he  had  eaten  a  bit  of 
banana. 


304  Public  School  Methods 

Emma:  My  big  brother  says  that  in  his  room  they  study 
about  the  teeth  and  eyes  and  everything,  and  his  book  says 
that  you  must  clean  your  teeth  after  each  meal  or  they  will 
decay. 

Henry:  My  papa  gives  me  a  dollar  for  brushing  my  teeth 
every  day.  If  you  do  that,  you  won't  have  to  go  to  the  dentist. 
I  suppose  that  is  why  the  squirrel  takes  care  of  his,  for  I  never 
heard  of  a  squirrel  dentist. 

Lesson  III 

Teacher:  Imagine  our  pet  in  his  forest  home  eating  his 
dinner.  Now  imagine  yourselves  at  the  dinner  table.  Tell 
one  difference. 

Tom:  There  is  one  big  difference.  He  is  in  a  nicer  place 
than  I.  He  can  see  all  the  squirrels  and  the  birds  and  the 
bears  and  the  other  nice  things. 

Teacher:  But  if  these  nice  things  don't  happen  to  know 
him — what  then  ? 

Helen:  Then  he  will  have  to  look  out  or  they  will  snatch 
his  nuts.     Oh,  maybe  they  will  eat  him. 

Teacher:  How  would  you  be  treated  if  you  were  at  dinner 
with  strangers? 

Henry:  People  would  only  stare  at  me,  I  guess,  but  I'd 
most  as  soon  they'd  eat  me  as  that. 

Teacher:    Why  do  you  think  Frisky  eats  so  fast? 

Mary:  I  think  he  is  afraid  of  the  animals  he  isn't 
acquainted  with  and  wants  to  get  his  dinner  over  so  he  can 
run  away.  My  mamma  often  says  to  me,  " Don't  eat  so  fast; 
no  one  will  take  your  dinner."  It  isn't  good  to  eat  fast.  It 
hurts  your  stomach  and  makes  you  sick.  Frisky  has  to,  so 
he  is  used  to  it. 

Teacher:  Compare  the  position  of  your  mouth  with  the 
position  of  Frisky 's. 

Helen:  My  mouth  is  in  my  face,  and  Frisky's  is  under 
where  I  should  think  his  chin  ought  to  be. 

Teacher:  Think  of  a  difference  that  makes  in  your  way  of 
eating. 


Nature  Study  305 

Tom:  I  think  that  makes  me  bend  my  head  forward  and 
look  down  when  I  eat.  Frisky  just  holds  his  food  up  to  his 
reck  and  goes  ahead. 

Teacher:  How  might  that  be  of  help  to  the  poor  little 
thing? 

Emma:  Well,  one  thing,  he  can  eat  and  have  his  head 
up  to  watch  out  at  the  same  time. 

Henry:  And  maybe  he  can  stretch  his  mouth  to  hold  a  nut 
better  when  his  mouth  is  down  there.  I  thought  of  some 
things  when  I  was  watching  him.  I  thought  when  he  was 
eating  and  watching  us  on  each  side  of  his  cage,  maybe  his  eyes 
are  on  the  side  and  stand  out  so  that  he  can  eat  and  look  all 
around  at  the  same  time. 

Nellie:  And  I  thought  of  something,  too.  He  isn't  as 
particular  about  what  he  eats  as  we  are,  for  he  ate  a  piece  of 
rotten  nut,  and  we  wouldn't  do  that. 

(e)  Written  Exercises.  The  following  written  exercises 
are  given  as  they  came  from  the  pupils.  They  show  how  the 
material  gathered  in  lessons  of  this  kind  can  be  used  for  lan- 
guage work: 

WHAT    OUR    PET    USES    HIS    TAIL    FOR 

"Frisky,  I  want  you  to  tell  me  about  your  tail,"  said  I,  one  day. 
Said  Frisky,  "I  will.  Well,  I  use  it  in  summer  as  a  parasol  and  as 
an  umbrella  in  winter."  "But,"  asked  I,  "is  that  all  you  use  it 
for?"  "I,"  replied  Frisky,  "use  it  for  a  pair  of  wings.  I  spread 
it  out  when  I  jump.  At  night  I  use  it  for  a  blanket."  "Tell  me 
some  more,"  said  I.  "But  I  am  so  tired,"  said  poor  Frisky.  You 
may  know  that  I  felt  very  disappointed  when  he  told  me  that. 
"Well,  I  will  tell  you  one  more  sentence.  I  think  it  very  pretty, 
don't  you?"  said  Frisky,  "and  isn't  that  a  good  use?" 

OUR  pet's  TAIL 

"Frisky,  I  want  you  to  tell  me  what  you  use  your  tail  for."  "I 
use  my  tail  for  a  shade  tree,  to  keep  the  sun  off  on  summer  days," 
he  replied.  "When  I  jump  from  branch  to  branch  I  use  my  tail 
to  come  to  the  ground  and  so  you  see  I  do  not  hurt  me,"  he  replied. 
"I  use  my  tail  for  an  umbrella,  a  parasol  and  a  blanket  at  night,  to 
keep  me  warm,"  he  said.  "I  am  glad  my  tail  is  not  like  a  rat's  tail; 
if  it  were  I  could  not  jump  from  any  high  places  without  hurting 
myself." 


306  Public  School  Methods 


THE    SQUIRREL  S    COVERING 

We  are  now  talking  about  Frisky's  covering.  Now  he  has  a  thick 
coat  because  it  is  cold  in  winter,  but  last  summer  the  hair  was  so 
thin  that  we  could  see  the  skin.  It  was  cooler  for  him  so.  In  sum- 
mer we  wear  thinner  clothes,  too.  Now  Frisky  looks  like  a  branch 
with  a  little  snow  sprinkled  on  it.  The  snow  is  the  white  hair  in 
his  fur.     I  don't  believe  a  hunter  could  see  him  easily. 

OUR    SKIN    AND    FRISKY'S    SKIN 

We  live  in  the  warm  house  and  have  warm  clothes,  besides,  so 
we  have  delicate  pink  skin  with  little  baby  hairs  on  it.  You  can 
see  them  on  the  back  of  your  hand.  But  the  poor  squirrel  lives 
out  in  the  hot  weather,  and  in  the  cold  weather,  and  in  the  rainy 
weather.  So  he  wears  loose,  greasy  hairs.  Under  the  long,  coarse 
ones  he  wears  soft,  fine,  thick  hairs  in  winter. 

OTHER    LESSONS 

19.  Literature.  So  far  as  possible,  suitable  poems  and 
other  choice  quotations  from  the  best  authors  should  be 
memorized  in  connection  with  many  of  the  objects  studied. 
With  each  flower  studied,  some  beautiful  and  appropriate 
quotation1  should  be  taught,  the  length  and  difficulty  being 
regulated  to  suit  the  age  and  ability  of  the  class.  To  illus- 
trate: Suppose  the  pansy  is  the  subject  of  study;  in  the  first 
grade  give  this  stanza,  by  Dunroy: 

Purple  for  shadows,  gold  for  sunshine, 

White  for  the  clouds  on  high, 
Brown  for  the  earth  that  gave  them  birth, 

And  blue  for  the  azure  sky. 

To  the  second  grade  give  the  following: 
Of  all  the  bonny  buds  that  blow 

In  bright  or  cloudy  weather, 
Of  all  the  flowers  that  come  and  go 

The  whole  twelve  months  together, 
The  little  bright-faced  pansy  brings 
The  sweetest  thoughts  of  pleasant  things. 

1  The  selections  here  given  are  suggestive  of  what  may  be  used.  Children  in 
the  third  grade  studying  the  squirrel  will  like  Emerson's  The  Mountain  and 
Squirrel.  For  a  helpful  book  on  this  work,  see  Anna  E.  McGovern's  Nature  Study 
and  Related  Literature. 


Nature  Study  307 


The  third  grade  will  enjoy  learning: 

APRIL    FOOLS 

Shy  little  pansies  tucked  away  to  sleep, 
Wrapped  in  brown  blankets  piled  snug  and  deep, 
Heard  in  a  day-dream  a  bird  singing  clear: 
"Wake,  little  sweethearts;  the  springtime  is  here!" 

Glad  little  pansies,  stirring  from  their  sleep, 
Shook  their  brown  blankets  off  for  a  peep, 
Put  on  their  velvet  hoods,  purple  and  gold, 
And  stood  all  a-tremble  abroad  in  the  cold. 

Snowflakes  were  flying,  skies  were  grim  and  gray, 
Bluebird  and  robin  had  scurried  away; 
Only  a  cruel  wind  laughed  as  it  said, 
"Poor  little  April  fools,  hurry  back  to  bed!" 

Soft  chimes  a-quiver,  dark  eyes  full  of  tears, 
Brave  little  pansies,  spite  of  their  fears, 
Said,  "Let  us  wait  for  the  sunshiny  weather; 
Take  hold  of  hands,  dears,  and  cuddle  up  together." 

20.  Recognition  of  Deciduous  Trees.  In  addition  to  the 
work  suggested  in  the  type  lesson,  Our  Tree,  Section  15,  a 
strong  third  grade  class  can  begin  the  study  of  trees  on  a 
more  extended  plan.  The  study  begun  in  this  grade  will, 
of  course,  continue  in  the  grades  that  follow. 

There  are  several  distinct  ways  by  which  trees  may  be 
recognized : 

(a)  In  Summer,  (i)  General  Appearance.  Notice  size; 
manner  of  branching;  shape  of  the  branching  portion;  gen- 
eral outline. 

(2)  Bark.     Notice  whether  it  is  smooth,  rough,  deep- 

ridged  or  seamed,  thick,  thin,  and  its  color. 

(3)  Leaves.     Notice  their  size,  shape,  color,  margins, 

manner  of  growth. 

(b)  In  Winter.  Notice  (1)  the  size  of  the  tree  and  size 
of  the  trunk;  (2)  the  manner  of  branching;  (3)  the  outline 
as  seen  against  the  sky. 


308  Public  School  Methods 

21.  Recognition  of  Common  Evergreens,  (a)  Pines.  All 
have  needle-shaped  leaves  bound  together  by  a  sheath  at 
the  back. 

(i)  Black  Pine.     Leaves  three  to  five  inches  long,  in 
groups  of  two,  short  sheaths. 

(2)  White  Pine.     Leaves  three  to  four  inches  long, 

in  groups  of  five. 

(3)  Yellow  Pine.     Leaves  three  to  five  inches  long, 

in  groups  of  two  or  three,  long  sheaths. 

(4)  Scotch  Pine.    Leaves  one  and  one-half  to  two  and 

one-half  inches,  in  groups  of  two,  short  sheaths. 

(b)  Spruces,  (i)  In  General.  Leaves  are  short  needles, 
somewhat  four-sided,  point  all  ways,  are  not  clustered. 

(2)  White  Spruce.     Cones  two  inches  long. 

(3)  Norway    Spruce.     Cones    five    to     seven    inches 

long. 

(c)  Hemlocks.  Leaves  flat,  narrowed  to  short  stem, 
arranged  on  opposite  sides  of  twigs,  appear  to  be  two-ranked. 

(d)  Firs.     Leaves  like  hemlocks,  but  with  no  stem. 

(e)  Arbor  Vitae.  Trees  with  flat  branches  and  with 
small,  overlapping  leaves,  closely  pressed  against  branches 
and  of  two  kinds,  one  sharp  pointed,  the  other  scale-like 
and  blunt.  The  most  common  species,  American  arbor 
vitae,  has  a  pleasant  aromatic  odor. 

The  wood  of  each  species  of  tree  has  distinct  character- 
istics of  grain,  color  and  hardness,  and  when  trees  are  manu- 
factured into  various  forms  of  lumber,  such  as  boards,  plank, 
square  timber,  shingles  and  lath,  a  lumber  expert  can 
instantly  recognize  each  kind.  These  distinctive  traits  appear 
somewhat  different  when  the  wood  is  planed  and  polished, 
but  the  essential  characteristics  remain  the  same,  and  it 
does  not  take  long  to  learn  the  different  kinds  of  woods, 
whether  polished  or  in  the  rough. 

After  the  pupils  acquire  ready  recognition,  there  may 
be  given  lessons  to  test  relative  flexibility,  toughness  of 
fiber,  degree  of  hardness,  etc.,  leading  to  other  lessons  show- 
ing the  uses  to  which  each  kind  of  wood  is  best  adapted. 


Nature  Study  309 

Such  lessons  may  be  taken  as  a  separate  branch  of  study 
or  they  may  be  brought  in  as  incidentals  to  the  study  of 
geography,  commerce,  manufactured  wooden  wares,  ship 
and  boat  building  and  other  occupations.  They  will  lend 
great  interest  to  these  subjects  and  convert  them  from  dull, 
bare  statistics  into  matters  full  of  vivid  life  and  action. 

22.  To  Lend  Interest  to  the  Study  of  Evergreens.  The 
following  paragraphs  from  Primary  Education  contain  a 
number  of  very  practical  suggestions  which  the  teacher 
may  profitably  use: 

In  the  spring  you  may  find  on  the  ends  of  evergreen  twigs  fragile 
catkins,  which  shed  clouds  of  pollen.  This  pollen  floats  in  the  air 
to  tiny  rigid  cones  with  ovules  at  the  bases  of  the  scales.  Each 
ovule  which  receives  a  pollen  grain  may  later  become  a  seed.  Dried 
and  crumbled  pollen  catkins  are  almost  always  to  be  found  among 
the  leaves  of  evergreen  trees. 

The  berry-like  fruits  of  the  red  cedar  are  modified  cones  in  which 
the  scales  have  become  fleshy,  and  so  envelop  the  seeds.  They  have 
a  spicy  taste  and  are  used  to  flavor  gin.  These  berry-like  fruits 
are  eaten  by  birds,  and  as  the  hard  coated  seeds  are  dropped  by 
the  birds  as  they  sit  on  fences,  it  is  a  common  thing  to  find  young 
cedar  trees  following  the  fence  lines  of  Jersey  farms. 

As  an  introduction  in  teaching  the  lesson,  exhibit  from  your 
desk  a  quantity  and  variety  of  material;  at  the  same  time  tell  the 
children  where  and  how  you  procured  it.  Aim  to  make  the  intro- 
duction as  inspiring  as  possible,  by  mentioning  such  items  as,  first, 
the  use  of  evergreen  trees  for  Christmas;  second,  for  a  shelter  to 
deer  and  other  wild  animals  during  snow-storms;  third,  as  a  hiding 
place  for  little  birds  during  windy  weather.  Tell  how  the  hunters 
improvise  huts  and  beds  of  the  green  boughs,  and  how  the  tall  tree 
trunks  are  used  for  masts  and  flag- poles. 

If  the  twigs  have  gum  on  them,  tell  the  children  that  the  tree 
uses  the  gum  to  cover  over  cuts  and  broken  limbs  so  that  they  will 
heal  before  insects  and  harmful  plant  diseases  can  attack  the  wound. 
Men  gather  the  gum  and  make  turpentine  and  some  kinds  of  tar 
from  it. 

23.  Reviews.  Reviews  of  trees,  shrubs,  weeds,  flowers — 
any  kind  of  plant  growth  that  has  been  studied — may  be 
conducted  easily  and  happily,  if  pupils  are  assigned  topics 
for  personations. 


310  Public  School  Methods 

(a)  A  Good  Plan.  On  a  given  day,  the  teacher  dis- 
tributes slips  of  paper  among  the  pupils,  each  slip  being 
numbered  and  bearing  the  name  of  a  tree.  By  the  time 
all  of  the  slips  are  distributed,  the  pupil  having  No.  i  is 
ready  to  recite.  He  may  come  before  the  class  or  stand  by 
his  seat  and  give  a  description  of  his  tree,  as  follows:  "I 
am  an  evergreen,  a  native  of  the  United  States.  I  grow 
very  tall,  have  a  long,  straight  trunk  that  branches  a  good 
many  feet  from  the  ground.  My  leaves  are  needle-shaped, 
three  to  five  inches  long,  in  groups  of  two  or  three.  My 
wood  is  used  for  finishing  houses  and  for  furniture."  Have 
the  pupils  give  name.     (Yellow  pine.) 

On  other  days,  names  of  shrubs,  flowers  and  fruits  may 
be  distributed  and  the  same  general  plan  followed. 

(b)  A  Second  Plan.  For  written  reviews,  slips  are  dis- 
tributed, descriptions  written  and  left  without  the  name  of 
the  plant.  Then  the  papers  are  exchanged,  each  pupil  add- 
ing the  name  of  the  plant  to  a  classmate's  description. 

As  a  rule,  it  is  better  to  keep  to  the  oral  descriptions, 
since  the  writing  takes  more  time  than  can  usually  be  spared. 
All  can  participate  in  the  oral  exercise,  and  these  persona- 
tions soon  give  a  fluency  in  the  use  of  language  that  other 
exercises  fail  to  impart,  probably  because  there  is  less  self- 
consciousness,  since  the  exercise  is  in  the  nature  of  a  game 
with  little  formal  restraint. 

(c)  A  Third  Plan.  Reviews  may  also  be  conducted  by 
means  of  drawing.  Numbered  slips  with  names  of  trees, 
flowers,  leaves,  etc.,  may  be  rapidly  distributed.  The  pupils 
pass  to  the  board,  each  pupil  drawing  freehand,  from  memory, 
what  his  slip  demands.  When  the  drawing  is  finished,  the 
pupils  take  their  seats.  Other  pupils  then  pass  to  the  board 
and  write  the  correct  name  under  each  drawing.  "This  is 
a  sugar  maple  tree."  "This  is  a  willow  tree."  "This  is  a 
locust  leaf."  "This  is  a  violet."  "This  is  a  sweet  pea." 
"This  is  a  lilac  leaf." 

(d)  A  Fourth  Plan.  Send  all  the  pupils  to  the  board 
at  once,  let  them  draw,  and  then,  without  naming  the  object, 


Nature  Study  311 

change  places,  after  which  each  may  write  the  name  of  his 
neighbor's  drawing. 

No  plant  should  be  assigned  that  has  not  been  previously- 
studied  carefully.  Announce  in  advance  the  day  for  such 
a  review.  Much  of  the  study  is  outside  of  school  hours, 
and  the  pupils  need  time  for  extra  practice  on  the  drawings. 
These  reviews  may  be,  and  at  first  should  be,  limited  to 
one  subject,  as  leaves,  trees,  flowers. 

After  leaves  have  been  studied  thoroughly,  the  older 
pupils  will  get  a  valuable  review  by  answering  questions 
like  the  following: 

Name  leaves  that  are  longer  than  they  are  wide.  Name 
those  wider  than  they  are  long.  Name  leaves  usually  less 
than  three  inches  in  length.  Name  those  usually  more  than 
three  inches  in  length.  Name  leaves  that  are  alternate  on 
the  stem.  Name  those  that  are  opposite  on  the  stem.  Name 
plants  that  have  simple  leaves.  Name  those  that  have  com- 
pound leaves.     Name  leaves  more  than  a  foot  long. 

Prepare  as  many  questions  as  are  necessary  to  cover  the 
plants  studied  and,  to  make  the  test  complete,  have  a  draw- 
ing made  to  illustrate  each  answer  given. 

24.  Regular  Study  by  Seasons.  For  greater  convenience, 
and  to  give  the  plant  study  a  more  systematic  form,  it  is 
best  to  arrange  the  work  in  three  groups  to  correspond  to  the 
seasons  in  which  schools  are  in  session,  viz.,  spring,  autumn 
and  winter.  At  the  close  of  the  spring  term,  the  teacher  may 
give  the  pupils  a  small  list  of  plants  to  observe  during  the 
summer  vacation.  This  will  keep  their  interest  alive  and 
lead  them  to  collect  valuable  facts  that  will  be  of  great  help 
when    the   study   is   systematically   resumed   in  September. 

25.  Suggestions  for  Spring  Study,  (a)  Wild  Flowers. 
Have  the  pupils  search  out  the  home  of  the  skunk  cabbage, 
Jack-in-the-pulpit,  trailing  arbutus,  anemone,  blood-root, 
hepatica,  trillium,  violet  and  the  other  early  spring  flowers 
that  grow  in  the  locality.  Watch  the  development  of  the 
leaves  and  blossoms  and  the  general  growth  of  the  plant. 
Bring  specimens  to  school  and  set  them  in  window  gardens, 


312  Public  School  Methods 

in  order  to  have  opportunities  for  closer  study.  Have  the 
pupils  make  drawings  of  these  plants  and  flowers. 

In  considering  the  skunk  cabbage,  leek,  wild  onion,  etc., 
bring  out  the  effect  they  have  upon  the  milk  of  cows  that 
eat  these  plants. 

Plant  beans,  peas,  squash  and  corn  at  home,  in  a  corner 
of  the  school  yard  or  in  the  window  garden,  and  watch  the 
germination  of  the  seeds  and  the  changes  in  the  plant  at 
different  stages  of  its  growth.  Make  drawings  illustrating 
these  changes. 

(b)  School  Gardens.  If  possible,  convert  a  sunny  por- 
tion of  the  school  premises  into  a  garden  and  plant  therein 
two  or  more  of  the  following:  barley,  oats,  corn,  sugar  cane, 
wheat,  buckwheat,  millet,  rye  and  flax,  according  to  locality 
and  age  of  pupils.  Have  these  tended  and  their  develop- 
ment studied  until  maturity  is  reached.  Also  plant  carrots, 
beets,  cucumbers  or  other  common  vegetables  and  watch 
their  growth  to  maturity. 

(c)  Cultivated  Flowers.  Spade  up  the  soil  around  the 
trees  on  the  school  grounds  and  plant  sweet  peas,  nastur- 
tiums, petunias,  poppies,  asters  and  the  late  cosmos.  Have 
all  these  cared  for  by  the  children  themselves,  and  let  the 
lessons  upon  them  be  informal.  Note  the  studies  made, 
and  begin  upon  new  plants  or  topics  in  September. 

26.  Schoolroom  Gardens,  (a)  Window  Boxes.  Boxes 
made  to  fit  the  window  and  filled  with  leaf  mold  may  be 
utilized  for  the  planting  of  seeds  for  germination,  and  for 
holding  geraniums  or  other  flowers  and  vines.  For  the 
warm  months  these  boxes  may  be  fastened  just  below  the 
windows  outside,  if  desired,  where  they  will  prove  a  source 
of  great  benefit  as  well  as  pleasure. 

(b)  Tumbler  Gardens,  (i)  Fill  a  tumbler  with  water 
and  tie  loosely  over  the  top  a  piece  of  mosquito  netting, 
covering  the  net  with  sweet  peas  or  the  scarlet  flowering 
bean.  Keep  the  tumbler  in  the  dark  for  three  or  four  days 
and  then  place  it  on  the  window  ledge  or  on  the  table  by 
a  sunny  window. 


Nature  Study  313 

(2)  Use  a  tumbler  or  glass  fruit  can  and  in  place  of  the 
net  use  a  piece  of  cotton  batting  or  thin  flannel  cut  exactly 
to  fit  the  top.  Place  this  on  top  of  the  water,  and  scatter 
over  it  canary,  chicory,  grass,  flax  or  mustard  seeds.  Keep 
the  can  in  the  dark  for  a  few  days,  then  bring  it  to  the  light. 
The  results  are  beautiful  in  both  (1)  and  (2),  showing  the 
upward  and  downward  growth  perfectly. 

(c)  A  Sponge  Garden.  Wet  a  large  sponge  thoroughly 
and  place  it  in  a  glass  dish  or  suspend  it  in  a  window  above 
a  window  box.  Sow  canary,  grass,  flax  or  mustard  seeds 
thickly  over  it.     Keep  the  sponge  wet. 

Large  pine  cones  may  be  similarly  used  or  set  in  a  saucer 
filled  in  with  green  moss.  When  cones  are  used,  fill  them 
in  with  soil,  sprinkle  thoroughly,  sow  the  seed  and  keep 
the  soil  damp. 

(d)  Vegetable  Cups.  Scoop  out  the  inside  of  a  large 
turnip,  beet,  carrot  or  parsnip,  leaving  a  thick  rim  all  around. 
Fill  the  cavity  with  soil  and  plant  with  vines  and  suspend 
the  cup  in  the  light  by  strong  cords. 

A  large  sweet  potato  in  a  vase  or  hanging  basket  will 
furnish  a  beautiful  vine,  if  kept  covered  with  water  to  within 
less  than  an  inch  of  the  top.  A  common  red  beet,  a  carrot 
or  a  parsnip  will  produce  a  pretty  growth.  Cut  the  tip  off 
and  plant  the  vegetable  in  a  tin  can  or  anything  else  that 
is  convenient.  Do  not  cut  the  top  of  the  plant  too  close, 
or  the  leaves  will  not  start  readily.     Cover  the  can  neatly. 

Caution.  It  is  seldom  that  conditions  are  such  as  to 
make  window  gardens  possible  during  the  winter  months, 
because  the  plants  are  liable  to  freeze ;  but  they  may  gladden 
the  schoolroom  from  early  spring  until  late  in  the  fall  and 
repay  a  hundredfold  all  the  effort  they  cost,  by  their  beauty 
and  their  aid  in  studying  the  unfoldment  of  the  plant  from 
the  seed. 

27.  Suggestions  for  Summer  Work.  Try  to  get  the 
pupils  interested  to  watch  for,  study  and  note  the  flowers, 
both  wild  and  cultivated,  that  bloom  during  the  summer 
vacation ;  to  watch  the  ripening  and  harvesting  of  the  various 


314  Public  School  Methods 

grains,  the  growths  of  garden  vegetable,  and  the  gathering 
of  medicinal  plants.  Call  for  drawings  of  and  reports  upon 
these  early  in  September,  before  taking  up  new  lines  of 
plant  observation  and  study. 

28.  Suggestions  for  Fall  Work.  (a)  Wild  Flowers. 
This  is  the  time  to  study  the  goldenrod,  aster,  gentian, 
milkweed,  thistle,  burdock,  sunflower,  clover,  late  dande- 
lion and  a  number  of  other  common  flowers. 

(b)  Cultivated  Flowers.  During  the  fall  months, 
any  of  the  late-blooming  flowers,  asters,  chrysanthemums, 
nasturtiums,  cosmos,  pansies,  sweet  peas,  geraniums,  etc., 
will  furnish  abundant  material  for  all  grades  of  pupils  to 
study. 

(c)  Seeds.  This  is  the  best  time  to  study  the  "seed 
boxes,"  the  differences  in  size,  color  and  general  appear- 
ance of  the  seeds,  seed  distribution  and  means  of  dispersal. 

Refer  back  to  the  outlines  previously  given  for  seed 
study,  and  assign  work  suited  in  difficulty  to  the  grade 
that  is  to  do  it.  Collect  specimens;  name  them;  observe 
the  parts  carefully;  learn  the  characteristic  features;  com- 
pare the  different  specimens,  and  learn  methods  of  preserv- 
ing desirable  seeds. 

In  connection  with  the  subject  of  seeds,  carefully  study 
common  fruits  and  nuts. 

(d)  Roots.  By  means  of  germinating  seeds  in  the  spring, 
the  pupils  learned  the  early  growth  of  plant  roots.  After 
the  summer's  work  is  done,  when  vegetables  are  being 
gathered,  there  is  an  opportunity  to  study  roots  of  full 
size  more  in  detail.  Particular  attention  should  be  given 
to  the  roots  of  useful  plants,  their  length,  manner  of  branch- 
ing, etc.,  since  a  knowledge  of  these  facts  is  essential  to 
successful  cultivation. 

The  roots  of  trees  should  be  carefully  studied  when  trans- 
planting is  done  and  by  visits  to  nurseries;  also,  from  illus- 
trated catalogues. 

(e)  Leaves.  The  spring  months  give  opportunity  for 
so  much  interesting  work  that  the   greater  portion   of  the 


Painted  lor  Public  School  Methods  by  the  Art  Institute,  Chicago 

SOME  OF  OUR  FAVORITE  FLOWERS 

1 — Chrysanthemum;  2 — Petunias;  3 — Nasturtiums;  4 — Sweet  Peas;  5 — Gladiolus;  6 — Asters 


Nature  Study  315 

leaf  study  may  profitably  be  left  to  the  fall  months.  The 
action  of  the  frost  upon  the  leaves  makes  it  possible  to  cor- 
relate a  great  amount  of  beautiful  color  work  and  color 
literature  with  the  leaf  study,  thus  increasing  the  value  of 
both. 

Caution.     Use  the  outlines  and  suggestions  already  given. 

(f)  Preparations  for  Winter.  This  topic  may  well 
occupy  a  considerable  portion  of  the  month  of  November, 
especially  when  carried,  as  it  should  be,  into  the  study  of 
animals  as  well  as  plants. 

Caution.  Search  the  educational  papers,  school  readers, 
and  the  writings  of  standard  poets,  Plan  Book,  Month  by 
Month,  Songs  of  the  Treetop  and  Meadow,  Nature  in  Verse, 
Graded  Memory  Selections,  Book  of  Nature  Myths  and  other 
similar  works,  for  appropriate  literature. 

29.  Suggestions  for  Winter  Work.  Usually  winter 
months  may  be  more  profitably  devoted  to  other  forms 
of  nature  study — water,  temperature,  light,  heat,  weather 
records,  clouds,  animals,  etc.  Nevertheless,  evergreens  may 
be  studied  in  the  winter,  and  additional  pleasure  is  secured 
when  this  study  leads  naturally  up  to  and  terminates  with 
the  thought,  customs  and  spirit  of  Christmas. 

30.  Aids.  The  following  works  will  be  found  helpful  to 
teachers.  Miss  Arnold's  lesson  outlines  in  Waymarks  for 
Teachers,  pages  78  and  79,  give  a  good  general  outline  of 
plant  lessons  for  the  first  six  grades  of  school.  On  page  36 
of  the  same  book,  Study  of  Thistles  is  typical  of  the  amount 
and  kind  of  plant  study  best  suited  to  primary  pupils. 

For  carefully  prepared  and  very  complete  lessons  on 
wheat,  corn,  the  apple  and  the  oak,  see  Miss  George's  Plan 
Book,  volume  three,  October.  Plan  Book,  volume  three, 
Septembe  ,  has  a  typical  primary  lesson  on  the  aster. 

Many  states  publish  Arbor  Day  manuals  full  of  excellent 
material  and  abounding  in  helpful  suggestions.  Apply  to 
the  Stat*    Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  for  copies. 

(a)  Bo  >ks  on  Trees.  Trees  of  the  Northern  United  States.  Apgar. 
American    3ook  Company,  Chicago. 


316  Public  School  Methods 

A  Year  Among  the  Trees.  Flagg.  Educational  Publishing  Com- 
pany, Chicago. 

Outlines  of  Lessons  in  Botany.  Newell.  Part  I,  From  Seed  to 
Leaf;  Part  II,  Flower  and  Fruit.     Ginn  &  Co.,  Chicago. 

(b)  Books  to  Aid  General  Plant  Study.  Waymarks  for 
Teachers.     Arnold.     Silver,  Burdett  &  Co. 

How  to  Know  the  Wild  Flowers.     Dana.     Charles  Scribner's  Sons. 

Plants  and  their  Children.     Dana.     American  Book  Company. 

How  Plants  Behave.     Gray.     American  Book  Company. 

How  Plants  Grow.     Gray.     American  Book  Company. 

Little  Flower  People.     Hale.     Ginn  &  Co. 

Chapters  on  Plant  Life.     Herrick.     American  Book  Company. 

Special  Method  in  Natural  Science.  McMurray.  Macmillan 
Company. 

Familiar  Flowers  of  Field  and  Garden.  Matthews.  D.  Appleton 
&  Co. 

One  Hundred  Lessons  in  Nature  Study.     Payne.     A.  Flanagan  Co. 

Agriculture  for  Beginners.     Ginn  &  Co. 

Fairyland  of  Flowers.     Pratt.     Educational  Publishing  Company. 

Under  the  Greenwood  Trees.  Rogers.  A.  Flanagan  Company,  Chicago. 

First  Book  of  Botany.     Youman.     American  Book  Company. 

TEST   QUESTIONS 

i.  Show  how  nature  study  secures  respect  for  the  different 
forms  of  labor  and  industry. 

2.  Why  is  the  study  of  plants  more  desirable  than  the 
study  of  animals  for  the  beginning  lessons  in  the  first  grade? 

3.  Give  an  outline  of  a  lesson  on  seeds  suitable  for  use 
in  the  first  grade. 

4.  Why  are  frequent  reviews  necessary?  How  can  these 
be  conducted  so  as  to  secure  the  desired  results,  and  at  the 
same  time  retain  the  interest  of  the  class? 

5.  Name  the  trees  that  you  can  recognize  by  their  bark 
alone.     Name  those  you  can  recognize  by  their  leaves  alone. 

6.  What  lessons  on  minerals  can  you  give  in  the  second 
grade?  Give  an  outline  for  the  study  of  a  pebble  in  this 
grade. 

7.  Compare  the  outline,  The  Boy  aitd  the  Squirrel,  with 
the  plan  for  the  study  of  the  cow.  How  do  they  differ? 
What  purposes  are  gained  by  using  both  plans  of  study? 


Nature  Study  317 

8.  Mention  at  least  three  things  that  you  have  learned 
from  the  illustrative  lessons  on  the  squirrel,  and  specify 
where  each  is  found. 

9.  What  use  can  you  make  of  the  facts  given  in  Sections 
20-22,  inclusive?  In  what  grade  can  you  do  this  work  most 
successfully? 

10.  What  results  would  you  expect  to  obtain  from  a 
school  garden?    How  would  you  conduct  such  an  enterprise? 


CHAPTER  ELEVEN 

NATURE  STUDY  (Continued) 

GENERAL    SUGGESTIONS 

1.  Extending  the  Work.  In  the  previous  chapter  we  have 
discussed  the  purposes  and  value  of  nature  study;  we  have 
given  a  number  of  type  studies  which  will  serve  as  models 
for  lessons,  and  have  outlined  briefly  the  work  which  may 
be  done  in  the  different  grades  and  at  different  seasons  of 
the  year.  The  purpose  of  this  chapter  is  to  call  attention  to 
the  scope  of  nature  study  in  the  first  three  grades,  and  to 
outline  more  in  detail  what  may  be  done  in  the  study  of 
birds,  insects  and  animals. 

2.  How  Much  to  Attempt.  The  whole  subject  of  animal 
life  is  one  of  great  interest  and  of  undoubted  value,  but 
it  is  entirely  too  extensive  to  be  undertaken  as  a  whole 
under  the  general  topic  of  nature  study. 

Much  of  the  work  must  be  done  outside  of  school,  at 
irregular  times  and  in  different  places,  at  varying  seasons 
of  the  year  and  under  varying  conditions  of  success.  What 
enters  into  the  hours  of  school  comes  largely  in  the  form 
of  reports  of  outside  observations  and  is  utilized,  as  in  plant 
study,  for  lessons  in  language,  reading,  spelling,  drawing, 
color,  form,  size  and  number.  Many  important  lessons  in 
ethical  and  literary  culture  may  easily  be  interwoven  with 
the  others,  as  a  legitimate  outgrowth  of  the  correlated  liter- 
ature presented.  The  work  upon  which  we  should  con- 
centrate our  attention  must  be  determined  somewhat  by 
the  locality  in  which  we  live. 

Caution.  For  the  purpose  of  giving  the  teacher  a  com- 
prehensive view  of  the  work,  these  outlines  are  somewhat 
more  extended  than  necessary  for  lessons  in  primary  grades. 
Only  the  larger  divisions  of  the  outlines  should  be  used  in 
lessons  with  the  first  and  second  grades,  and  in  the  third 
grade   details   should   not   be   considered   further   than    the 

318 


Nature  Study  319 

interest  of  the  children  will  warrant.  The  successful  teacher 
will  view  the  lessons  from  the  pupils'  standpoint  as  well 
as  from  her  own.  Possibly  numerous  topics  that  will  be 
of  interest  to  her  will  offer  no  attraction  whatever  to  the 
pupils;  such  topics  should  not  be  dwelt  upon  in  the  lessons. 

3.  Conditions  Contrasted.  Pupils  in  city  schools  have 
opportunities  to  see  horses,  mules,  dogs,  cats,  and  occasionally 
a  few  other  domestic  quadrupeds.  By  going  to  the  parks 
that  maintain  a  zoo,  the  children  may  see,  at  close  range, 
lions,  tigers,  bears,  elephants,  monkeys  and  many  other 
wild  animals.  By  visiting  the  museums,  they  may  see 
mounted  specimens  of  many  foreign  quadrupeds,  all  kinds 
of  birds,  insects,  reptiles,  fish — including  species  now  extinct 
— in  fact,  every  phase  of  animal  life.  Moreover,  in  the  parks 
are  many  native  wild  birds  and  some  wild  animals.  The 
schools  frequently  are  supplied  with  colored  charts  and  other 
forms  of  apparatus  for  teaching  natural  history. 

Pupils  in  the  small  towns  and  in  rural  districts  are  deprived 
of  many  of  the  opportunities  which  are  within  the  easy 
reach  of  pupils  whose  homes  are  in  large  cities.  On  the  other 
hand,  they  see  intimately  the  animal  life  around  them. 
Their  knowledge  thus  has  the  exactness  that  long  associa- 
tion gives.  They  not  only  recognize  at  sight  the  quadrupeds 
of  their  vicinity,  but  are  able  to  tell  their  characteristic  traits, 
where  they  live,  upon  what  food  they  subsist  and  how  and 
where  they  find  food  and  shelter. 

This  is  especially  true  of  the  domesticated  animals.  Of 
cows  and  their  value  to  man,  country  boys  and  girls  can 
speak  with  full  knowledge.  In  the  city,  children  never  see 
cows,  know  milk  only  as  it  is  delivered  in  bottles  or  cans, 
and  butter  and  cheese  only  as  they  are  found  on  the  table 
or  at  the  grocer's.  Similar  statements  may  be  made  as  to 
the  relative  knowledge  in  regard  to  sheep,  oxen,  swine, 
poultry,  and  even  dogs  and  cats. 

Of  hornets,  wasps,  honey-bees,  bumble-bees,  woodchucks, 
moles,  field-mice  and  other  animals  in  their  wild  state,  the 
city  children  know  nothing,  while  in  the  country  there  are 


320  Public  School  Methods 

still  many  to  be  found  who  share  the  knowledge  of  Whittier's 
famous  Barefoot  Boy — but  not  all  of  them  have  his  kindly 
disposition.  The  problem  is  to  awaken  in  both  city  and 
country  those  who  see  little  and  care  less ;  to  give  the  knowl- 
edge most  needed  by  the  children,  wherever  their  homes 
may  be;  above  all,  to  create  so  deep  and  abiding  an  interest 
in  nature  that  pupils  will  be  induced  to  get  knowledge  at 
first  hand,  from  which  they  will  understand  something,  at 
least,  of  the  unlimited  scope  of  creation,  its  endless  diversity 
and  the  interdependence  of  its  manifold  classes. 

4.  Preparation  Needed.  Before  the  teacher  attempts  to 
include  natural  history  as  a  regular  part  of  her  teaching, 
she  needs  first  to  have  a  fairly  good  knowledge  of  those 
forms  of  animal  life  that  are  accessible  in  the  neighborhood 
of  her  school.  The  second  step  is  to  decide  where  and  when 
to  begin,  and  to  determine  what  part  of  the  work  to  appor- 
+ion  for  outside  observation  and  what  to  make  a  part  of 
the  regular  school  routine. 

The  mode  of  introduction  should  be  informal,  but  a 
systematic  plan  should  underlie  the  work.  The  apparatus 
needed  has  been  indicated  in  the  previous  lesson. 

Few  teachers  know  natural  history  definitely  enough  to 
teach  it  without  the  assistance  found  in  books;  therefore, 
we  append  a  reliable  list  of  excellent  books  that  should  go 
into  the  school  library  as  an  aid  to  the  work  of  the  teacher 
and  as  a  means  of  verifying  the  observations  of  the  pupils. 

Caution.  No  teacher  should  make  the  lack  of  apparatus 
or  the  lack  of  personal  knowledge  an  excuse  for  omitting 
this  line  of  work.  The  important  thing  is  to  have  a  genuine 
interest  in  the  subject  and  to  be  willing  to  learn  with  the 
pupils  from  the  illustrations  on  every  hand. 

BIRDS 

6.  Importance  of  Bird  Study.  "When  God  wanted  a 
beautiful  thought  in  the  air,  he  molded  it  into  the  shape 
of  a  bird."  Boys  and  girls  in  the  primary  grades  of  both 
city  and  country  schools  know  but  little  of  birds,  and  never 


Nature  Study  321 

dream  of  the  important  part  they  play  in  the  great  scheme 
of  creation;  but  at  the  present  time  school  officers  and  other 
citizens  are  becoming  informed  as  to  the  value  of  bird  study 
and  better  results  are  obtained  from  instruction.  Public 
opinion,  prompted  by  a  better  knowledge  of  bird  values, 
has  ruled  against  collections  of  eggs  and  nests,  except  for 
museums  to  which  pupils  and  parents  alike  have  access. 
Even  for  these  collections  public  sentiment  rules  against 
more  than  one  egg  being  taken  from  a  single  nest,  and  dis- 
countenances taking  any  nest  till  after  it  has  been  aban- 
doned as  a  bird  home. 

The  reason  for  this  change  of  sentiment  may  be  traced 
to  (i)  the  patient  study  and  experiments  of  scientists  con- 
nected with  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture; 
(2)  the  efforts  of  the  American  Ornithological  Union;  (3) 
the  work  of  the  Audubon  societies,  especially  the  formation 
of  such  among  the  children  of  primary  and  intermediate 
grades  of  schools;  (4)  to  state  and  county  horticultural 
societies;  (5)  to  the  wanton  destruction  of  some  of  our  most 
delightful  song  birds  for  mere  practice  in  "wing  shooting" 
or  to  give  exercise  to  air  guns  and  "bean  shooters;"  (6) 
the  rapid  extinction  of  birds  of  beautiful  plumage  for  millinery 
purposes;  (7)  the  cooperation  of  the  press  to  make  the 
general  reading  public  acquainted  with  the  facts  relating  to 
the  economic  value  of  birds  as  these  were  obtained  by  public 
or  private  research;  (8)  the  instruction  concerning  the  real 
food  of  birds,  given  to  farmers  and  fruit-growers  by  agri- 
cultural associations  and  at  farmers'  institutes;  (9)  the 
intelligent  and  systematic  work  of  school  superintendents 
and  teachers. 

6.  Protection  of  Birds.  Practically  all  states  and  terri- 
tories have  laws  protecting  birds.  We  may  add  that  for  an 
individual  to  know  any  bird  well  is  to  become  its  protector 
thereafter,  except  in  a  very  few  instances  where  the  birds 
are  really  destructive. 

7.  Bird  Food.  "An  unfortunate  popular  error  greatly 
magnifies  the  injury  done   to   the   crops   of   grain  and  legu- 


322  Public  School  Methods 

minous  vegetables  by  wild  birds.  Very  many  of  those  gen- 
erally supposed  to  consume  large  quantities  of  the  seeds 
of  cultivated  plants  really  feed  almost  exclusively  upon 
insects,  and  frequent  the  wheat  fields,  not  for  the  sake  of 
the  grain,  but  for  eggs,  larvae  and  fly  of  the  multiplied 
tribes  of  insect  life  which  are  so  destructive  to  the  harvests. 
This  fact  has  been  so  well  established  by  the  examination 
of  the  stomachs  of  great  numbers  of  birds  in  Europe  and 
the  United  States,  at  different  seasons  of  the  year,  that  it 
is  no  longer  open  to  doubt."1 

"Birds  have  different  tastes  from  men;  as  a  rule,  they 
prefer  bitter,  sour  or  insipid  fruit.  We  should  never  destroy 
such  plants  as  the  wild  cherry,  wild  grape,  elder,  hackberry, 
Juneberry,  mulberry,  dogwood,  Virginia  creeper,  buckthorn, 
sumach,  bitter-sweet  and  others.  I  believe  by  encouraging 
such  plants  we  are  approaching  a  solution  of  the  problem 
that  will  preserve  for  our  own  benefit  both  the  cultivated 
fruit  and  the  birds."2 

The  following  important  facts  relative  to  the  food  of 
birds  often  supposed  to  be  distinctly  injurious  to  farmers 
and  fruit-growers  are  taken  from  the  most  reliable  author- 
ities, and  should  enable  the  teacher  and  pupils  to  do  much 
towards  removing  a  prejudice  that  in  some  states  has  led 
to  the  extermination  of  certain  birds — only  to  be  followed 
by  their  speedy  re-introduction  and  protection  after  a  bitter 
lesson  had  been  learned. 

(a)  The  Oriole.  This  bird  is  called  a  destroyer  of  fruit, 
especially  grapes.  In  the  stomachs  examined  were  a  few 
raspberries  and  no  trace  of  grapes.  Over  four-fifths  of  the 
oriole's  food  consists  of  insects,  mostly  those  injurious  to 
vegetation,  more  than  one-third  being  caterpillars. 

(b)  The  Cedar  Bird,  Waxwing  or  Cherry  Bird.  This 
bird  makes  but  one-twentieth  of  its  meals  on  cherries,  and 
yet  it  probably  eats  more  fruit  than  any  other  bird  of 
the    central    western    states.      During    a    plague    of    canker 

1  Illinois  Bird  and  Arbor  Day  Manual,  1905. 

2  William  E    Praeger:     Birds  in  Horticulture. 


Nature  Study  323 

worms,  seven  cedar  birds  were  shot  and  the  stomachs 
were  found  full  of  canker  worms,  averaging  about  one 
hundred  worms  to  each.  At  this  rate,  during  the  month 
when  the  canker  worm  prevailed,  not  less  than  ninety 
thousand  worms  would  be  destroyed  by  a  flock  of  thirty  of 
these  birds. 

(c)  The  Bluejay.  The  blustering  bluejay  is  a  friend 
to  the  orchard.  Rarely  he  robs  the  nests  of  other  birds, 
and  he  eats  but  little  fruit.  He  likes  acorns,  beechnuts  and 
chestnuts  better;  and  grasshoppers,  caterpillars  and  beetles 
form  one-fourth  of  his  entire  food. 

(d)  The  Catbird.  More  than  half  the  food  of  the  cat- 
bird is  of  beetles,  ants,  grasshoppers  and  other  insects. 
Less  than  one-fifth  is  fruit,  chiefly  raspberries  and  black- 
berries. Along  the  seacoast  this  bird  is  regarded  as  purely 
beneficial.  Wild  berries  are  plentiful  there,  but  less  abun- 
dant in  the  prairie  states  of  the  middle  West. 

(e)  The  Rose-Breasted  Grosbeak.  This  bird  is  partial 
to  the  potato-bug  as  an  article  of  food  and  will  prey  upon 
it  as  long  as  it  can  be  found. 

(f)  The  Cuckoo,  or  Rain  Crow.  This  bird  feeds  by 
choice  upon  the  woolly  caterpillars  that  are  entirely  safe 
from  many  birds. 

(g)  The  Common  Crow.  This  species  of  crow  has  a 
strong  bill  and  breaks  clods  and  turns  over  sticks  and  stones 
in  search  of  grubs  beyond  the  reach  of  smaller  birds. 

When  a  plague  of  Rocky  Mountain  locusts  visited  the 
West,  it  was  found  that  practically  every  crow  of  the  region 
was  feeding  upon  them. 

(h)  Woodpeckers.  These  birds  are  accused  of  injuring 
the  bark  of  trees,  stealing  fruit  and  robbing  nests  of  other 
birds.  All  this  is  done,  yet  five  out  of  the  six  common 
species  peck  wood  only  to  get  at  an  injurious  insect  within. 
The  hairy  and  downy  woodpeckers  and  the  flicker  are  highly 
valuable,  and  the  zebra  woodpecker  is  but  little  less  so. 
The  red-headed  woodpecker  destroys  great  numbers  of 
insects,  far  more  than  enough  to  balance  the  injury  it  does 


324  Public  School  Methods 

by  pecking  apples  or  other  fruits.     The  yellow-bellied  sap- 
sucker  is  the  most  injurious  of  this  family. 

(i)  The  Meadow  Lark.  This  bird  is  very  beneficial. 
Of  its  food,  nearly  three-fourths  is  animal  and  about  one- 
fourth  vegetable,  the  most  of  the  latter  being  the  seeds  of 
weeds.  As  a  destroyer  of  grasshoppers  alone,  each  meadow 
lark  is  estimated  to  be  worth  $1.20  per  year  to  the  farmer. 

(j)  Crows  and  Blackbirds.  Even  these  birds,  which 
delight  in  stealing  the  farmer's  corn  and  wheat  in  the  spring, 
for  *he  greater  part  of  the  year  are  tiuly  his  friends,  and, 
all  in  all,  fully  pay  for  all  the  grain  they  take. 

(k)  The  Robin.  Farmers,  gardeneis  and  fruit-growers 
even  yet  are  prone  to  look  upon  our  cheerful,  bold,  saucy, 
altogether-friendly  robin  with  suspicion,  hence,  investi- 
gators have  put  him  severely  upon  trial,  to  learn  that  when 
he  comes  north  and  finds  winter  weather,  he  eats  the  seeds 
left  upon  last  summer's  shrubs,  vines  and  weeds.  When 
the  snow  is  gone,  he  eats  fly-larvae,  and  later,  larvae  of 
beetles,  grasshoppers  and  other  ground  insects.  In  March, 
one-fifth  of  his  food  is  cutworms;  in  April,  he  eats  more 
beetles.  Till  the  end  of  May,  and  sometimes  later,  more 
than  nine-tenths  of  hi6  food  consists  of  insects.  Cultivated 
fruit  is  eaten  to  any  serious  extent  only  during  June  and 
July.  The  fruit  eaten  later  is  mostly  wild  berries  or  waste 
fruit  left  by  the  grower  as  worthless.  In  August,  over  a 
third  of  his  food  is  grasshoppers  and  crickets.  Harmful 
beetles — whose  larvae  are  "white  grubs" — moths,  butter- 
flies, bees,  wasps,  ants,  bugs,  aphides,  army  worms  and 
other  forms  of  animal  food  help  to  supply  his  table.  All 
in  all,  the  most  careful  statistics  prove  that  the  balance  is 
decidedly  in  the  robin's  favor  for  economic  purposes,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  jolly  comrade  he  becomes  to  man  whenever 
permitted,  and  the  cheery  music  he  is  ever  ready  to  furnish. 

It  being  now  possible  to  learn  what  foods  the  wild  birds 
prefer,  it  remains  with  the  fruit-growers  to  protect  their 
fruits  by  supplying  such  food  as  will,  practically,  make  their 
own  immune  from  the  birds.     Mr.  Praceer  offers  the  follow- 


Nature  Study  325 

ing  very  practical  suggestions  as    an    insurance    for    culti- 
vated fruits: 

Were  a  supply  of  berries,  of  kinds  worthless  to  us  but  prized 
by  the  birds,  at  hand,  the  pressure  on  domestic  fruits  would  be  greatly 
relieved.  If  a  few  trees  of  the  Russian  mulberry  were  planted,  pre- 
ferably in  our  hen  yards  or  hog  runs,  the  chickens  and  hogs  would 
appreciate  them,  and  they  would  produce  plenty  of  fruit  and  offer 
robins  and  catbirds  a  supply  of  food  just  when  our  cherries  are  ripe. 
Later  in  the  season,  wild  berries  are  more  abundant  and  garden  fruits 
suffer  less.  At  this  season  water  is  often  scarce  and  fruit  juices  may 
be  the  best  substitute  obtainable.  It  has  been  found  that  it  is  in 
years  of  drought  that  the  fruit,  especially  grapes,  suffers  most. 

8.  Recognition  of  Birds.  Birds  may  be  recognized  by 
their  characteristic  features,  among  which  are  size;  shape; 
color  of  plumage;  mode  of  flight;  song  or  call;  kind  of  beak, 
tail,  feet,  food;  time,  place  and  manner  of  nestmaking;  size, 
color  and  number  of  their  eggs;  care  of  the  young;  number 
of  broods  in  a  season;  time  of  arrival,  time  of  departure; 
social  or  solitary  habits;  changes  of  coat;  changes  of  song; 
flight  by  day  or  night. 

When  an  exhaustive  study  of  any  bird  is  undertaken, 
all  these  points  should  be  ascertained  by  long  and  careful 
observation  in  the  open  air;  the  observations  should  be 
recorded  and  compared  with  the  best  printed  authorities. 
Local  conditions  will  account  for  any  small  differences. 
Only  the  most  prominent  features,  as  color,  size,  song  and 
kind  of  nest,  should  be  considered  by  the  primary  grades. 

(a)  When  to  Begin.  Birds  might  be  studied  during 
the  entire  year  with  much  profit  and  pleasure  did  not  other 
things  interfere,  since  some  birds  remain  during  the  winter, 
even  in  the  coldest  of  our  states.  From  the  beginning  of 
March,  through  April  and  till  the  twentieth  of  May  is  the 
period  of  the  spring  migration.  The  last  week  in  April  and 
the  first  two  weeks  in  May  will  show  the  greatest  numbers 
of  transient  visitors.  This  is  before  the  leaves  grow  large, 
and  at  this  time  the  opportunities  for  observation  are 
greatest.  At  least  a  hundred  different  species  may  be  seen 
by  the  careful  observer  during  the  migration  period. 


326  Public  School  Methods 

For  fall  study,  select  September  and  early  October,  for 
then  the  birds  return  South.  The  study  may  continue  later, 
if  there  is  a  desire  to  make  a  special  study  of  the  last  birds 
to  depart. 

(b)  Where  to  Begin.  With  children  of  the  primary 
grades,  it  is  always  best  to  begin  with  some  bird  that  they 
already  know  by  sight  or  with  one  that  is  of  itself  particularly 
attractive  in  plumage  or  by  reason  of  its  personal  qualities. 

(c)  Facts  to  be  Learned.  The  following  extract  from 
the  Wisconsin  Arbor  and  Bird  Day  Manual,  1900,  tells  what 
children  should  learn  about  birds: 

To  know  the  name  of  a  bird  is  of  comparatively  little  value,  to 
know  to  what  class  he  belongs  is  of  no  great  moment;  in  short,  to 
know  him  from  the  scientific  standpoint  amounts  to  little,  so  far  as 
the  average  child  is  concerned.  If  he  becomes  a  specialist,  he  will 
learn  all  this  quickly  in  later  life.  But  to  love  birds  and  to  form 
habits  of  observation  sufficient  to  watch  carefully  every  bird  is  worth 
as  much  as  any  branch  of  study.  No  training  of  the  ear  is  better 
than  that  which  comes  from  listening  to  the  song  of  birds;  no  train- 
ing in  color  knowledge  is  better  than  discrimination  of  their  hues 
and  tints;  no  better  form  study  than  appreciation  of  their  shape; 
no  better  discipline  in  the  study  of  motion  than  in  the  study  of  their 
hopping,  pecking,  and  flying. 

If  these  ideas  are  carried  out  in  spirit,  your  pupils  will 
become  enthusiastic  in  bird  study.  In  addition  to  the  robin 
(see  page  292,  Section  16),  study  the  birds  named  in  the 
following  Sections,  and  such  others  as  time  will  permit. 

9.  The  Meadow  Lark.  Like  the  robin,  the  meadow  lark 
is  generally  distributed  over  the  United  States,  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.  It  is  a  familiar  bird,  much  prized 
for  its  song  and  for  its  immense  economic  value.  In  the 
latter  respect,  it  outranks  nearly  all  other  birds  of  the 
meadow  and  prairie  lands.  Its  favorite  food  is  insects, 
which  for  six  months  of  the  year  form  over  nine-tenths  of 
its  food,  and  during  August  and  September  a  still  larger 
proportion.  The  remaining  portion  consists  of  weed  seeds 
and  grain  gleaned  from  the  stubble  fields  in  January,  February, 
March,  April  and  December.     For  other  food  statistics,  see 


Nature  Study  327 

remarks  on  page  324.  For  a  full  description  of  the  meadow 
lark,  see  Educational  Leaflet  No.  3,  National  Committee  of 
Audubon  Societies. 

To  study  the  meadow  lark  with  the  children,  use  the 
same  set  of  questions  as  for  the  robin,  but  explain  the  need 
of  going  farther  afield. 

10.  The  Flicker.  The  flicker  belongs  to  the  woodpecker 
family,  and  yet  he  is  as  much  terrestrial  as  arboreal  in  his 
habits.  His  traits  are  so  numerous  and  individual  that 
many  sections  have  given  him  a  local  name  expressive  of 
some  peculiar  characteristic.  One  compiler  reports  one 
hundred  twenty-four  of  these  neighborhood  names.  You 
may  know  him  by  the  name  of  yellow  hammer  or  golden 
winged  woodpecker,  or  possibly  by  the  inappropriate  and 
libelous  name  of  sapsucker. 

The  flicker  is  a  most  welcome  accompaniment  of  spring, 
and  a  most  noticeable  one.  His  strong  voice,  heard  in  jovial 
and  varied  calls,  together  with  his  pranks  and  antics,  have 
caused  some  writers  to  call  him  the  clown  among  the  com- 
mon birds. 

Half  of  this  bird's  food  for  the  entire  year  is  ants  and 
has  been  so  for  so  long  a  time  that  the  flicker's  tongue  has 
become  specialized  to  obtain  these  insects  easily.  For  its 
economic  value,  see  note  on  woodpeckers,  on  page  323, 
and  for  a  complete  description  of  the  flicker,  see  Educational 
Leaflet  No.  5,  National  Audubon  Societies.  To  study  the 
flicker,  use  the  same  general  method  as  with  other  birds, 
and  the  same  questions. 

11.  The  Crow,  (a)  Illustrations.  Secure  a  tame  crow, 
a  mounted  specimen,  or  a  good  picture.  The  first  is  greatly 
to  be  preferred  and,  in  the  country  or  small  towns,  can 
often  be  borrowed  for,  a  few  days. 

(b)  Where  Found.  The  crow  lives  throughout  North 
America  from  Hudson  Bay  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

(c)  Description.  The  entire  length  is  from  sixteen  to 
seventeen  inches  and  the  tail  is  seven  and  one-half  inches. 
The  bill  is  two  inches  long.     The  wings  appear  saw-toothed 


328  Public  School  Methods 

when  spread,  and  are  almost  equal  to  the  tail  in  length. 
The  feet  are  strong  and  adapted  to  walking.  The  color  is 
a  rich,  glossy  black.  The  cry  is  very  harsh  and  loud.  In 
disposition,  the  bird  is  bold,  fearless,  thievish,  generally 
mischievous,  and  full  of  curiosity.  It  pulls  up  young  corn, 
robs  nests  of  small  birds,  steals  eggs  from  wild  and  domestic 
fowls,  flies  in  a  straight  line  ("as  straight  as  a  crow  flies") 
at  an  average  rate  of  twenty-five  miles  per  hour,  gathers 
in  large  flocks,  and  is  a  great  eater.  Crows  may  be  tamed 
and,  occasionally,  they  learn  to  talk  a  little. 

(d)  Food.  This  consists  of  fruits,  seeds,  corn,  oats, 
berries,  acorns,  all  vegetables,  snakes,  frogs,  worms,  insects 
and  meadow  mice.  The  crow  pays  the  farmer  for  corn  by 
eating  insects,  cut-worms  and  grubs.  On  the  whole,  it  does 
much  more  good  than  harm. 

(e)  Nest.  The  nest  is  large,  coarsely  built  of  twigs, 
sticks,  moss,  grass  and  leaves.  It  is  about  twenty  inches 
in  diameter  and  ten  inches  deep.  Both  male  and  female 
assist  in  building,  and  complete  the  nest  in  less  than  a  week — 
sometimes  in  three  days. 

(f)  Eggs.  These  are  from  four  to  six  in  number,  of  bluish- 
green  color,  tinted  with  brown,  and  are  quite  large  for  the 
size  of  the  bird.  Usually  but  one  brood  is  hatched  in  a 
summer,  and  that  early  in  the  season. 

(g)  Seat  Work.     Draw,  paint  or  sew  a  crow  in  outline. 

(h)  Language,  Literature  and  Songs.  Fables,  anec- 
dotes, proverbs,  poems  and  songs  concerning  crows  are 
plentiful  and  should  be  used  freely,  as  they  are  full  of  interest 
and  show  the  wisdom  and  shrewdness  of  this  peculiar  bird.1 

12.  The  Duck.  The  tame  duck  or  the  goose  would  be 
the  natural  introduction  to  aquatic  birds.  Of  these  two, 
the  duck  would  be  preferable  to  begin  with,  it  being  smaller, 
more  easily  handled  and  more  easily  obtained. 

(a)  Points  to  Consider.  From  personal  observation, 
have  primary  pupils  learn  that  the  body  is  boat-shaped, 
the  bill  thick  and  strong,  with  a  natural  sieve  to  strain  out 

1  Adapted  from  Miss  George's  Plan  Book. 


Nature  Study  329 

the  water  and  leave  food  in  it.:  mouth.     Also,  from  observa- 
tion, learn  answers  to  the  folic  wing  questions: 

(b)  Questions.  Where  are  the  nostrils?  Where  are 
the  ears?  Are  they  large  or  small?  Where  are  the  legs 
placed  on  the  body?  Are  the)  like  those  of  a  hen,  or  different? 
Why?  How  many  toes  are  there?  How  many  are  webbed? 
How  does  the  web  help?  Wha1"  is  the  color  of  the  plumage? 
Why  are  the  feathers  so  oily?  Why  can  a  duck  swim,  while 
the  hen  or  the  robin  can  not?  What  are  the  best  conditions 
for  the  tame  duck?  Why  are  tame  ducks  valuable?  (Eggs, 
feathers,  food.)  What  is  their  food?  Why  are  duck's  eggs 
often  given  to  a  hen  to  hatch?  How  long  must  they  be 
brooded  before  they  hatch?  What  are  baby  ducks  called? 
What  kind  of  a  nest  does  the  duck  make?  Where  do  ducks 
prefer  to  nest?  What  is  their  food?  What  food  do  they 
get  from  the  water?    How  do  they  get  food  when  on  a  pond? 

If  possible,  compare  a  tame  duck  with  wild  ones  as  to 
size,  plumage  and  habits.  In  the  right  season,  one  may 
get  teal  and  canvas-back  ducks  from  a  good  market;  other- 
wise, use  stuffed  specimens  or  pictures  as  aids.  Have  the 
pupils  draw  an  outline  of  the  duck  and  of  the  duck's  foot. 

(c)  Literature.  Who  Likes  the  Rain!  (Poem).  Story 
of  the  hen  that  hatched  ducks.  (The  best  one  is  Little 
Mother  Quackalina.)  The  Ugly  Duckling.  Bryant's  To  a 
Waterfowl. 

13.  Suggestive  Studies.  Some  of  the  chief  points  for 
each  season  are  the  following:  (i)  identification  of  many 
birds  of  the  neighborhood  common  to  that  season,  as  the 
English  sparrow,  robin,  flicker,  bluejay,  barn-swallow, 
meadow  lark,  etc.;  (2)  establishing  a  general  standard  of 
comparative  size,  remembering  that  the  robin  is  from  ten 
to  eleven  inches  long  and  the  English  sparrow  about  six 
inches;  (3)  learning  where  these  birds  are  most  often  seen, 
as  in  the  air,  in  the  water,  on  the  ground,  on  trees  or  among 
bushes;  (4)  determining  how  the  wind,  rain  and  snow  affect 
birds;  (5)  learning  the  difference  in  size  and  plumage  between 
male  and  female  birds;   (6)  learning  how  and  where  birds 


330  Public  School  Methods 

sleep;  (7)  finding  out  what  birds  are  permanent  residents 
and  what  are  spring  and  autumn  migrants,  winter  visitors 
or  summer  visitors.  These  and  many  other  questions  corre- 
sponding to  those  previously  given  in  this  chapter  should 
be  used  as  points  for  special  study. 

14.  How  to  Help  the  Birds.  If  you  are  a  lover  of  birds 
and  would  like  their  beauty  and  music  near  your  homes, 
and  their  unceasing  diligence  to  protect  your  plants,  you 
can  speedily  attract  them  to  your  own  yards  by  (1)  keep- 
ing, in  retired  places,  shallow  pans  rilled  with  water  for 
them  to  drink  and  bathe  in;  (2)  hanging  out  pieces  of  suet 
or  salt  pork  for  them  when  the  weather  is  cold;  (3)  by  scat- 
tering crumbs  on  stormy  days  ("a  bird  restaurant");  (4) 
by  planting  elder  bushes,  wild  cherries,  mulberries  and 
other  shrubs  and  trees  around  your  lanes  or  back  fences; 
(5)  by  building  homes  for  them  if  shrubs  and  trees  are  lack- 
ing; (6)  by  protecting  them  against  their  enemies. 

For  excellent  suggestions  and  models  for  bird  houses, 
consult  Nature  Study  mxd  Life,  by  Hodge,  chapter  twenty. 
Mr.  Hodge  also  tells  how  to  make  a  bird  census  and  a  food 
chart.  Bird  Lore,  the  organ  of  the  Audubon  Societies,  con- 
tains a  wealth  of  material. 

Public  interest  may  be  awakened  and  made  permanent 
by  (1)  combining  Arbor  Day  and  Bird  Day  (as  in  Wisconsin 
and  Illinois),  celebrating  the  day  designated  by  the  governor 
with  exercises  appropriate  to  both  subjects;  (2)  by  teach- 
ing the  state  game  laws  and  the  economic  values  of  birds; 
(3)  by  keeping  school  scrapbooks  of  pictures  and  interesting 
and  varied  literature  upon  birds;  (4)  by  keeping  migration 
records  and  exchanging  with  other  schools  of  the  state,  or 
by  posting  important  bird  facts  upon  a  public  bulletin  board 
(in  postomce,  if  permitted);  (5)  by  making  known  the  shame- 
ful facts  in  regard  to  bird  slaughter  for  millinery  uses,  for 
"practice  shooting"  or  "just  for  fun." 

15.  Bird  Lore.  Use  all  proper  means  to  emphasize  the 
intelligence,  patience,  courage  and  devotion  of  the  birds. 
There  are  thousands  of  excellent  fables,  anecdotes,  legends, 


Nature  Study  331 

poems  and  stories  to  supplement  the  facts  gained  by  per- 
sonal observation. 

Disabuse  the  children's  minds  of  the  idea  that  a  bird's 
life  is  all  freedom  and  happiness.  Teach  its  cares,  its  enemies, 
its  faithfulness  to  duty,  its  trials,  its  ingenuity  in  overcom- 
ing obstacles  and  its  patient  courage  in  times  of  disaster. 

An  extract  from  The  Thrush's  Lesson  will  help  children 
to  remember  birds  that  walk  and  birds  that  hop: 

The  birds  that  scratch  in  the  earth,  little  boy, 
And  the  birds  that  wade  in  the  water  with  joy, 
Can  walk,  one  foot  at  a  time,  you  see, 
As  you  do,  except  when  they  hop  like  me. 

But  most  of  the  birds  that  can  sing  you  a  song 
Are  small,  and  their  legs  are  not  very  strong; 
Walking,  wading  and  scratching  they  leave  to  the  rest; 
But  hop,  hop,  hop  and  fly  with  the  best. 

I've  many  relations,  each  one  of  us  sings; 
We're  called  warblers  and  perchers,  and  other  true  things. 
Just  keep  your  eyes  open,  while  out  at  your  play, 
You'll  see  what  I've  told  you  is  true.     Good  day! 

16.  Nests  and  Nesting  Time.  During  the  early  spring 
months,  the  pupils,  large  and  small,  should  be  interested 
in  watching  for  signs  of  nest-building.  They  should  note 
the  date  when  the  nest  is  begun  and  how  long  it  takes  to 
complete  it;  the  time  of  day  when  work  goes  on;  whether 
the  male,  female  or  both  birds  work;  the  place  chosen;  the 
neatness  of  work;  the  materials  used  for  outside  and  for 
inside;  the  size  of  nest;  how  it  is  fastened  in  place;  the  num- 
ber, size  and  color  of  eggs ;  and  they  should  make  comparison 
of  the  housemaking  of  different  birds  observed. 

"When  these  observations  are  being  made,  every  precau- 
tion should  be  taken  to  prevent  the  birds  from  being  frightened 
and  the  nests  from  being  robbed  or  destroyed.  Emphasize 
the  hard  work,  patience,  skill  and  intelligence  shown  in  the 
nest-making,  and  arouse  that  sympathy  for  the  little  home- 
makers  which   leads  to  their  protection. 


332  Public  School  Methods 

In  the  autumn,  after  the  leaves  have  fallen,  the  nests 
will  show  plainly  among  the  naked  twigs  of  the  trees,  shrubs, 
vines  and  hedges.  The  dried  and  shrunken  weeds  and  grasses 
will  also  disclose  the  deserted  homes  of  such  birds  as  nest  on 
or  near  the  ground.  The  nests,  having  been  deserted,  may 
now  be  collected  and  studied  in  detail  for  those  facts  relating 
to  materials,  construction  and  the  like,  that  could  not  be 
accurately  settled  by  the  more  or  less  distant  study  in  the 
spring. 

A  large  branch  of  a  tree  may  be  brought  to  the  school- 
room, the  nests  placed  naturally  therein  and  the  whole  kept 
as  a  permanent  part  of  the  school  museum.  The  old  nests 
will  greatly  help  the  younger  pupils  in  their  observation 
the  following  spring,  by  showing  definite  points  in  materials 
and  methods  of  construction. 

By  watching  carefully,  pupils  will  learn  that  robins  build 
near  the  homes  of  people,  in  trees,  hedges,  vines,  shrubs, 
over  the  porches,  and  that,  like  people,  some  of  them  are 
very  careful,  and  others  very  careless,  housekeepers. 

Bluebirds  prefer  to  nest  in  holes  in  old  apple  trees,  stumps, 
or  in  bird  houses.  The  song  sparrow  builds  on  the  ground, 
in  hedges  or  among  bushes.  The  meadow  lark  and  some 
blackbirds  build  on  the  ground,  often  in  rather  marshy  places. 
Swallows  build  under  the  eaves  of  barns,  in  chimneys  or  in 
banks  of  sand  or  soft  clay. 

Woodpeckers  like  to  make  their  nests  in  trees  that  bear 
nuts.  The  orioles  choose  elms,  oaks,  cottonwoods  or  other 
high  trees.  Yellowbirds  and  catbirds  build  in  thickets  of 
bushes.  Phoebes  build  under  bridges,  in  fence  corners, 
bushes,  and  sometimes  in  curious,  unexpected  places,  as  do 
the  martins  when  unable  to  find  a  bird  house  already  pre- 
pared for  them.     Wrens  also  build  in  odd  places. 

Crows  and  eagles  build  in  the  tops  of  high  trees,  and  the 
eagle  sometimes  in  the  crevices  of  a  high  cliff.  Cowbirds 
and  the  English  cuckoo  build  no  nests  at  all,  but  lay  their 
eggs  in  the  nests  of  smaller  birds,  who  are  compelled  to  rear 
the  young  of  the  marauders.     Pigeons,  magpies,  whip-poor- 


Nature  Study  333 

wills  and  some  others  are  careless  builders  or  lay  and  hatch 
their  eggs  on  sand  or  rocks. 

17.  The  Migration  of  Birds.  The  subject  of  migration 
is  but  partially  studied  in  the  spring  when  noting  the  times 
when  the  different  birds  arrive  in  any  certain  section.  The 
fall  study  will,  in  some  respects,  be  more  satisfactory  and 
opportunities  for  observation  more  frequent,  since  most  of 
the  birds  assemble  in  flocks  before  they  depart  for  the  South. 
But  then  the  plumage  of  the  immature  birds  and  the 
fading  colors  of  the  adult  males  make  them  difficult  of 
identification. 

(a)  Points  to  Settle.  Certain  questions  should  be  kept 
before  the  pupils;  as,  Why  and  when  do  birds  migrate? 
What  preparations  do  they  make  for  the  journey?  Do  they 
change  their  coats?  Do  they  go  in  pairs,  in  flocks  or  alone? 
By  day  or  night?  Quietly  or  noisily?  Do  they  fly  high  or 
low?  With  a  rapid  or  sweeping  motion  of  wings?  Why  do 
the  birds  stop  on  their  journeys? 

(b)  Facts  to  Learn.  Timid  birds  and  those  that  live 
in  the  woods  fly  at  night,  especially  those  that  usually 
catch  their  food  at  night;  as  owls,  nighthawks,  whip-poor- 
wills. 

Swallows,  bluebirds,  robins,  larks,  crows  and  others  fly 
by  day.  Birds  that  feed  almost  exclusively  on  small  insects, 
such  as  the  swallows  and  warblers,  are  the  first  to  leave, 
and  the  birds  that  remain  in  the  North  through  the 
winter  are  such  as  can  subsist  on  winter  berries,  weed 
seeds,  and  the  like.  These  often  need  aid  during  severe 
storms. 

(c)  Records.  A  simple  record  of  migrations  can  be  kept 
after  the  following  plan:  Copy  this  list  upon  a  sheet  of 
manila  paper  and  hang  it  in  plain  sight  for  reference.  Have 
pupils  watch  the  birds  and  compare  the  results  they  get 
with  Mr.  Ingersoll's  observations.  Also  have  them  add  to 
this  list  familiar  birds  not  named  herein,  as  the  robin,  blue- 
bird, etc.,  whose  migration  they  determine  from  personal 
observation. 


334 


Public  School  Methods 


October1 
First  Week:  Bobolink. 

Phoebe. 
White-eyed  vireo. 

Second  Week:      Catbird. 
Cowbird. 
House  wren. 
Nighthawk. 
Purple  grackle. 
Redstarts. 
Rusty  blackbird. 
Scarlet  tanager. 
Swifts. 
Whip-poor-will. 

Third  Week:         Chipping  sparrow. 
Sparrows. 

Fourth  Week:      Oven  bird. 

Red-eyed  vireo. 
Swamp  sparrow. 

Fifth  Week:  Hermit  thrush. 

Wood  thrush;  other  thrushes  earlier. 

Last  Week:  Chewink. 

Humming  bird. 

Indigo  bird. 

Meadow  lark. 

Red-winged  blackbird.  Flocks  extensively  in  the 
marshes  and  disappears  the  last  week. 

Rose-breasted  grosbeak. 

Song  sparrow.  Some  go  southward  and  others 
come  from  the  north  this  month,  but  the 
species  is  present  in  most  localities  all  winter. 

18.  Books  for  Teachers.  The  widespread  and  increasing 
interest  in  the  subject  of  birds  has  caused  a  great  many 
valuable  bird  books  to  be  published,  far  more  than  we  have 
space  to  enumerate;  hence,  we  select  those  within  reach  of 
most  teachers,  suggesting  that  books  from  this  list  be  added 
to  the   school   library   as   rapidly   as   circumstances   permit. 

1  Ernest  Ingersoll:     Nature  Calendar. 


Nature  Study  335 

These  exclude  bird  poems,  anecdotes  and  other  bird  liter- 
ature of  a  general  character  that  are  also  very  helpful. 

(a)  Reference  Books.  Bird  Homes.  A.  R.  Dugmore.  Double- 
day,  Page  &  Co.,  New  York. 

A  Year  with  the  Birds.  Wilson  Flagg.  Educational  Publishing 
Co.,  Chicago. 

The  Plan  Books.    Marion  George.    A.  Flanagan  Company,  Chicago. 

Nature  Study  and  Life.     C.  F.  Hodge.     Ginn  &  Co. 

How  to  Know  One  Hundred  Wild  Birds  of  Illinois.  D.  Lange. 
Educational  Publishing  Co.,  Chicago. 

How  to  Know  One  Hundred  Wild  Birds  of  Indiana.  D.  Lange. 
Educational  Publishing  Co.,  Chicago. 

How  to  Know  One  Hundred  Wild  Birds  of  Missouri.  D.  Lange. 
Educational  Publishing  Co.,  Chicago. 

My  Saturday  with  a  Bird  Class.  Mary  Miller.  D.  C.  Heath  & 
Co.,  Chicago. 

The  First  Book  of  Birds.  Oliver  Thome  Miller.  Houghton, 
Mifflin  &  Co.,  Chicago. 

The  Second  Book  of  Birds.  Oliver  Thorne  Miller.  Houghton, 
Mifflin  &  Co.,  Chicago. 

How  to  Natne  the  Birds.  H.  E.  Parkhurst.  Charles  Scribner's 
Sons,  Chicago. 

The  Citizen  Bird.    Mabel  Osgood  Wright.    Macmillan  Co.,  Chicago 

(b)  Magazines  and  Pamphlets.  The  following  maga- 
zines and  pamphlets  contain  valuable  and  interesting  infor- 
mation :  The  Auk;  Bird  Lore;  The  Wayside;  National  Audubon 
Educational  Leaflets;  Cornell  Nature  Study  Leaflets;  Bulletins 
from  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture;  also  the 
Arbor  Day  and  Bird  Manuals  published  by  the  Department 
of  Public  Instruction  in  your  own  and  other  states.  Those 
of  Wisconsin,  Illinois  and  New  York  are  of  special  interest 
and  can  usually  be  obtained  by  writing  the  Superintendent 
of  Public  Instruction. 

INSECTS 

19.  Important  Facts.  The  distinctive  parts  of  an  insect's 
body  are  three,  viz.,  head,  thorax  and  abdomen. 

Other  facts  necessary  to  teach  at  the-  beginning  of  insect 
study  are  the  following:  (i)  A  caterpillar  is  a  larva  and  not 
a  true  worm.     It  is  an  insect  in  one  stage  of  its  develop- 


336  Public  School  Methods 

ment.  (2)  Every  larva  grows  from  an  egg,  but  larvae  do  not 
produce  eggs.  (3)  A  larva  left  to  itself,  and  unmolested  in 
its  transformation,  changes  to  pupa  or  to  a  form  known  as 
chrysalis.  (4)  Many  larvae  spin  cocoons  of  silky  fabrics  or 
of  felty  texture  for  a  protective  covering  for  the  chrysalis. 
The  terms  cocoon  and  chrysalis  must  not  be  confused. 
Explain  to  the  children  that  the  cocoon  is  but  the  blanket 
that  covers  the  real  baby  (the  chrysalis).  (5)  The  chrysalis 
while  sleeping  is  undergoing  important  internal  changes, 
and  from  it,  after  a  proper  time,  will  emerge  either  a  perfect 
moth  or  a  butterfly. 

This  adult  insect  will  soar  away  to  begin  a  new  cycle  of 
insect  growth  by  laying  eggs,  which  will  change  into  larvae, 
then  chrysalides,  then  moths  or  butterflies.  The  larvae  of 
moths  and  butterflies  are  called  caterpillars. 

Every  complete  transformation,  therefore,  consists  of 
four  stages,  viz.,  (1)  egg,  (2)  larva  or  caterpillar,  (3)  pupa 
or  chrysalis,  (4)  adult  insect  or  imago.1 

20.  How  to  Tell  the  Butterflies  from  the  Moths,  (a) 
Butterflies.  The  antennae,  or  horns,  are  always  smooth 
and  thread-like,  with  knobs  at  the  tips.  The  wings  are 
closed  when  at  rest  and  held  vertically  upright  as  a  protec- 
tion. This  conceals  the  brightest  colors  on  the  wings  and 
prevents  notice.  The  butterfly  flies  by  day,  fluttering  from 
flower  to  flower,  and  sleeps  at  night,  clinging  to  grasses, 
flowers  or  trees. 

(b)  Moths.  The  bodies  are  generally  larger  in  propor- 
tion to  their  wings  than  are  those  of  the  butterflies.  The 
antennae  are  feathered  or  spined,  and  have  no  knobs  at  the 
tips.  The  wings,  when  at  rest,  lie  down  flat.  Moths  gen- 
erally fly  at  twilight  and  through  the  night. 

21.  Butterfly  Caterpillars  and  Moth  Caterpillars.  Cater- 
pillars with  spines  usually  produce  butterflies  and  those 
having  a  hairy  growth,  more  or  less  thick,  are  apt  to  pro- 
duce moths.  In  case  of  naked  caterpillars,  one  cannot 
determine  beforehand,  but  must  await  results. 

1  Abridged  from  Insect  Biographies,  in  Popular  Educator. 


Nature  Study  337 

22.  Caterpillar  Food.  Each  caterpillar  requires  to  be 
fed  with  whatever  kind  of  leaf  you  find  him  upon.  If  upon 
the  grape  vine,  give  him  grape  leaves  to  eat.  ...  If  you 
cannot  find  out  what  he  is  and  what  he  should  have,  and 
fail  to  suit  him  with  any  variety  of  leaf  you  have  at  com- 
mand, you  must  either  let  him  go  or  see  him  die.1 

23.  Formation  of  the  Chrysalis.  "On  a  pleasant,  sun- 
shiny day  in  September,  I  noticed  a  caterpillar  crawling 
along  under  the  lower  edge  of  the  siding  of  our  home  and 
determined  to  watch  it.  I  remained  there  the  greater  part 
of  the  day.  The  caterpillar  seemed  undecided  in  its  move- 
ments, and  did  not  move  far  from  the  same  place. 

"At  last  my  patience  was  rewarded — the  caterpillar 
suddenly  dropped  its  head  downward,  but  still  held  to  the 
siding  with  its  tail.  In  a  moment  more  it  began  a  sort  of 
wriggling  movement,  really  reminding  me  of  a  child  wrig- 
gling out  of  its  shirt  when  going  to  bed,  and  soon  the  cater- 
pillar's furry  garment  came  over  its  head  and  dropped  to 
the  ground. 

"It  looked  a  bright  flesh  color  under  its  fur.  Its  next 
movement  was  to  curl  up  a  little,  and  even  as  I  watched 
a  sort  of  slime  seemed  to  cover  the  body  of  the  caterpillar — 
it  must  have  been  a  secretion  from  its  own  body — and 
hardened  into  a  gray  shell,  closely  fitting  its  body.  Then 
the  caterpillar  was  ready  for  the  winter. 

"The  larva  of  the  moth  makes  both  its  chrysalis  and  its 
cocoon.  It  first  selects  a  good  place  to  weave  its  little  house 
— usually  in  the  branches  of  some  tree.  After  this  outer 
house  or  cocoon  is  finished,  it  goes  through  the  same  per- 
formance as  the  larva  of  the  butterfly."2 

24.  Outline  for  Butterfly  Lesson,  (a)  Material.  Bring 
a  butterfly  before  the  class  in  a  glass  jar  or  box  made  of 
close  wire  netting,  with  some  fresh  flowers  and  twigs.  Leave 
room  enough  for  it  to  fly  about. 

(b)  Method,     (i)  Body.     How  many  main  parts? 

»  From  Ballard:     Moths  and  Butterflies. 
'Martha  Koehler,  in  School  Education. 


338  Public  School  Methods 

(2)  Wings.  How  many?  How  and  where  are  they 
attached  to  the  body?  How  covered?  How  moved?  What 
is  their  position  when  at  rest? 

(3)  Legs.  How  many?  How  attached?  Of  what  use 
are  they  to  the  insect? 

(4)  Tongue.  Why  is  it  so  long?  What  is  its  position 
when  not  in  use?  When  and  how  does  it  get  its  food ?  What 
is  its  manner  of  eating? 

(5)  Eggs-  When  and  where  are  they  found?  To  what 
are  they  fastened?  How  are  they  fastened?  How  are  they 
arranged?  What  is  their  color?  Size?  How  long  before 
they  hatch? 

(6)  Habits.  Are  the  butterflies  solitary  or  in  families? 
When  and  how  do  they  sleep?  What  is  their  manner  of 
flight?     Mode  of  protection? 

(7)  Use.  What  are  the  uses  of  the  butterfly  to  flowers? 
(Carry  pollen  and  help  fertilization.)  How  are  butterflies 
harmful  to  plant  life?  Butterflies  are  used  as  a  symbol  of 
what?     Why? 

(8)  Literature.      Anecdotes,    myths    and    poems.      Songs. 
25.  Questions    on    the    Mourning   Cloak.     "At    what    date 

did  you  see  the  first  mourning  cloak  this  season?  Why  did 
it  not  die  of  freezing  during  the  winter?  Is  the  first  mourn- 
ing cloak  that  you  see  in  the  spring  bright  in  colors  and 
perfect  in  form,  or  is  it  somewhat  battered  and  faded?  From 
your  observation  on  the  above  question,  you  can  infer 
whether  it  is  fresh  from  the  chrysalis  or  whether  it  wintered 
as  a  butterfly.  Which  do  you  think?  Describe  the  flight 
of  this  butterfly.  Does  it  flutter,  or  does  it  sail,  or  does  it 
do  both?  Do  all  butterflies  pass  the  winter  in  the  same 
stage  of  life  as  does  the  mourning  cloak?  Describe  the 
colors  and  the  markings  of  the  mourning  cloak's  wings  above 
and  below.  How  many  legs  has  the  mourning  cloak? 
Capture  a  butterfly  without  harming  it  and  put  it  in  a  cage 
made  of  mosquito  netting  and  give  it  sweetened  water  in  a 
vial  with  a  small  neck.     Describe  how  it  gets  the  water."1 

1  Mary  Rogers  Miller,  in  Home  Study  Nature  Course. 


Nature  Study  339 

26.  A  Box  for  Cocoons.  "A  glass  box  for  cocoons  and 
caterpillars  is  more  artistic  and  convenient  than  a  variety 
of  bottles  and  jars,  and  such  a  box  can  be  made  in  twenty 
minutes. 

"The  materials  required  are  three  sheets  of  window- 
glass,  8  x  io  inches,  for  the  sides  and  top  of  the  box,  a  piece 
of  wire  screening  for  the  ends,  a  sheet  of  heavy  cardboard 
the  same  size  as  glass  for  the  base,  and  some  white  passe- 
partout binding.  With  the  passepartout  join  a  long  side 
of  the  cardboard  to  the  same  length  of  a  sheet  of  glass,  then 
join  the  opposite  side  of  the  cardboard  to  another  sheet 
of  glass.     Now  you  have  the  base  and  two  uprights. 

"  Fasten  the  third  sheet  of  glass  to  the  other  two  for  the 
top  and  the  box  is  completed,  excepting  the  ends,  for  which 
the  wire  screening  is  bent  the  required  size  and  can  be  easily 
fastened  over  the  glass  at  the  top  and  sides  and  under  the 
cardboard.  The  screen  can  be  removed  when  attending  to 
the  contents  of  the  box. 

"  Cover  the  floor  of  this  box  with  moss,  selecting  that 
which  has  little  growing  leaves  and  vines;  fasten  in  a  few 
quaint-looking  toadstools,  or,  if  too  late  in  the  fall  to  secure 
anything  green,  put  in  twigs,  and  you  have  an  attractive 
little  house,  when  your  cocoons  and  caterpillars  are  enclosed, 
which  will  be  watched  with  great  delight  by  the  children. 

"Unless  the  cocoons  are  already  fastened  to  twigs,  even 
if  you  use  moss,  do  not  forget  a  branch  or  two  for  the  forth- 
coming butterflies  or  moths  to  hang  from  in  order  to  pro- 
tect their  wings. 

"  But  of  course  you  will  wish  to  see  some  of  the  coverings 
spun.  A  shallow  box  rilled  with  earth  and  a  few  fresh  leaves, 
such  as  the  caterpillar  is  found  feeding  upon,  should  be 
added  for  new  occupants."1 

27.  Butterfly  Seasons.  "As  roses  belong  to  June,  and 
chrysanthemums  to  October,  so  butterflies  seem  to  be  a 
joyous  part  of  July.  It  is  their  gala-day,  and  they  are  every- 
where, darting  and  circling  and  sailing,  dropping  to  investi- 

1  Nellie  E.  Daily,  in  Primary  Education. 


340  Public  School  Methods 

gate  flowers  and  over-ripe  fruit,  and  rising  on  buoyant  wings 
high  into  the  upper  air,  bright,  joyous,  airy,  ephemeral. 
But  July  can  only  claim  the  larger  part  of  their  allegiance, 
for  they  are  wanderers  into  all  the  other  months,  and  even 
occasionally  brave  the  winter  with  torn  and  faded  wings. 

"It  may  appear  strange,  if  not  altogether  inappropriate 
to  the  season,  that  'the  fair,  fragile  things  which  are  the 
resurrection  of  the  ugly,  creeping  caterpillers '  should  be 
almost  as  numerous  in  October  as  in  the  balmy  month  of 
July.  Yet  it  is  true,  and  early  October,  in  some  parts  of 
the  country,  is  said  to  be  perhaps  the  best  time  of  the  year 
for  the  investigating  student  and  observer  of  butterflies. 
While  not  quite  so  numerous,  perhaps,  many  of  the  species 
are  in  most  perfect  condition,  and  the  variety  is  still  intact. 
Many  of  them  come  and  remain  until  frost,  and  the  largest 
butterfly  we  have,  the  Archippus,  does  not  appear  until 
the  middle  of  July,  but  after  that  is  constantly  with  us, 
floating  and  circling  on  the  wing,  until  October. 

"Many  varieties  of  the  Vanessa  are  often  seen  flying 
about  in  May,  but  they  are  far  more  numerous  and  perfect 
in  July,  August  and  September.  A  beautiful  azure-blue 
butterfly,  when  it  is  fluttering  over  flowers  in  the  sunshine, 
looks  like  a  tiny  speck  of  bright  blue  satin.  Several  other 
small  butterflies  which  appear  at  the  same  time  are  readily 
distinguished  by  the  peculiar  manner  in  which  their  hind  wings 
are  tailed.  Their  color  is  a  dull  brown  of  various  shades, 
marked  in  some  of  the  varieties  with  specks  of  white  or  blue. 

"All  June  and  July  butterflies  are  August  and  September 
butterflies,  not  so  numerous  in  some  instances,  perhaps,  but 
still  plentiful,  and  vying  with  the  rich  hues  of  the  chang- 
ing autumnal  foliage." 

28.  Insect  Preparation  for  Winter.  "  (a)  Brown  Wasp. 
Queens  seek  shelter  in  houses,  logs,  stumps  and  other  sheltered 
places  for  the  period  of  hibernation;  other  forms  die. 

"  (b)  Hornet  and  Yellow-jacket.  Queens  find  shelter 
in  old  nests,  or  in  other  convenient  situations;  drones  and 
workers  die. 


Nature  Study  341 

"(c)  Bumble-bee.  Drones  and  workers  die;  queens  seek 
shelter  in  the  nest  or  in  similar  places  on  the  ground. 

"  (d)  Ant.  Species  living  in  earthen  nests  retire  to 
lower  parts  of  the  nest;  others  inactive. 

"  (e)  Mud  Wasp  and  Digger  Wasp.  The  few  remain- 
ing adults  die,  leaving  only  immature  forms  in  the  cells 
to  live  through  the  winter. 

"  (f)  Ichneumon  Fly.  A  few  adults  go  into  hibernat- 
ing quarters;  many  species  winter  over  in  the  immature 
condition. 

"  (g)  Ground  Beetle.     Seeks  shelter  under  logs. 

"  (h)  Ladybird  Beetle.  Adults  seek  shelter  in  leaves 
about  the  bases  of  trees  and  in  similar  situations;  many 
hundreds  or  even  thousands  of  the  same  species  will  often 
congregate  in  such  a  place. 

"  (i)  Black  Blister  Beetle.  Adults  die,  leaving  larvae 
in  the  soil  to  live  through  the  winter. 

"  (j)  May  Beetle.  Some  larvae  change  to  pupae  and 
then  to  adults  remaining  in  pupal  cells;  other  larvae  burrow 
deeper  into  the  soil. 

"  (k)  Long-horned  Beetle.  Larvae  commonly  burrow 
deeper  into  the  wood. 

"  (1)  House  Fly.  Adults  seek  hibernating  quarters  in 
houses,   sheds,   under  bark,   etc. 

"  (m)  Fall  Canker-worm.  Moths  appear  and  lay  eggs 
on  twigs  of  apple  and  elm  trees. 

"  (n)  Bud-worm.  Larvae  fasten  their  silken  cases  to 
the  bark  of  twigs  near  the  buds."1 

29.  Ants.  Ants  form  a  very  interesting  and  instructive 
study  for  children.  They  can  be  studied  in  the  schoolroom 
by  providing  an  ant  house  in  which  to  keep  them.  This 
can  be  made  by  having  a  tinner  take  a  piece  of  tin  about 
eight  inches  square  and  join  it  to  a  curved  piece,  forming 
around  the  center  a  little  ditch.  Fill  this  with  water  so 
that  the  ants  cannot  make  their  escape,  and  on  each  of 
the  four  edges  of  the  square  stand  a  thin  piece  of  glass  about 

1  From  Ingersoll:     Nature  Calendar. 


342  Public  School  Methods 

an  inch  high  so  as  to  form  a  room  with  glass  sides.  A  piece 
of  glass  can  also  be  used  for  the  top.  Take  up  a  small  ant 
hill,  taking  care  to  preserve  it  intact,  as  far  as  possible,  and 
place  this  in  the  ant  house.  If  provided  with  air  and  food, 
the  ants  will  live  here  nearly  as  well  as  out  of  doors,  and 
all  of  their  habits  and  methods  of  work  can  be  studied. 

The  children  will  soon  discover  that  there  are  three 
classes  of  ants — the  males,  females  and  workers;  also  that 
the  males  and  females  never  work.  They  will  also  be  able 
to  see  the  life-history  of  these  insects  by  watching  the  eggs 
to  see  when  they  hatch,  and  noticing  the  care  which  some 
of  the  workers,  popularly  called  nurses,  take  of  the  young. 
A  simple  microscope  is  of  great  assistance  in  this  study. 

Before  proceeding  to  the  study  of  the  ant,  the  teacher 
should  become  thoroughly  informed  on  the  habits  and 
life-history  of  the  insect  and  be  able  to  give  clear  descrip- 
tions of  these;  also  to  tell  stories  concerning  the  ants  that 
live  in  different  parts  of  the  world. 

Cautions,  (i)  See  that  the  children  recognize  the  intelli- 
gence, courage,  strength,  patient  industry  and  wonderful 
ingenuity  of  the  ant. 

(2)  Teach  that  their  extreme  love  for  sweets  and  fats 
renders  them  most  unwelcome  to  the  housewife;  and  that 
their  protection  of  aphides  (plant  lice)  makes  them  noxious 
to  the  farmer. 

(3)  The  chief  enemies  of  ants  (and  hence,  friends  of 
the  agriculturist)  are  the  woodpeckers  and  nighthawks, 
both  of  which  consume  enormous  numbers  of  these  insects. 

(4)  The  literature  pertaining  to  ants  is  most  interesting 
and  should  be   freely  used. 

30.  Crickets.  Prepare  two  or  three  small,  light  boxes 
and  fit  them  with  glass  covers  or  sides.  The  boxes  should 
be  perforated  so  as  to  admit  of  free  circulation  of  air.  These 
make  convenient  cages  for  the  study  of  most  insects.  In 
the  autumn,  place  some  crickets  in  the  cages  and  lead  the 
children  to  study  them  freely.  For  class  work  the  boxes 
can  be  passed  from  desk  to  desk,  and  the  pupils  can  describe 


Nature  Study  343 

or  draw  what  they  observe.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  study 
the  boxes  should  be  taken  out  of  the  building  and  the 
crickets  set  free. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  the  pupils  should  be  led  to 
study  crickets  while  out  of  school,  thus  learning  facts  about 
their  homes,   habits   and   dispositions. 

Concerning  crickets,  as  well  as  ants,  there  are  many 
interesting  proverbs,  anecdotes  and  songs  that  should  be 
interwoven  with  the  study  of  the  insect. 

Caution.  In  all  studies  of  insects,  in  addition  to  the 
description  of  bodies,  dispositions,  homes  and  habits,  there 
should  be  very  careful  attention  given  to  the  food  of  each 
kind,  thus  determining  whether  the  insect  be  harmful  or 
otherwise.  In  case  it  is  harmful,  then  its  enemies  should 
be  learned  and  protected.  Other  modes  of  extermination 
should  be  studied. 

31.  Helps.  The  following  books  are  helpful  to  teachers, 
and  some  of  the  readers  can  be  used  by  the  third  grade. 

Among  the  Moths  and  Butterflies.  Julia  P.  Ballard.  G.  P.  Put- 
nam's Sons,  New  York. 

Agriculture  for  Beginners.     Burkett,  Stevens  and  Hill.    Ginn&Co. 

Birds,  Bees  and  Bright  Eyes.  John  Burroughs.  Houghton, 
Mifflin  &  Co.,  Chicago. 

Ways  of  the  Six-footed.     Anna  Botsford  Comstock.     Ginn  &  Co. 

Insect  Folk.     Margaret  W.  Morley.     Ginn  &  Co.,  Chicago. 

Little  Wanderers.     Margaret  W.  Morley.     Ginn  &  Co.,  Chicago. 

Stories  of  Insect  Life,  First  and  Second  Series.  Clarence  M.  Weed. 
Ginn  &  Co.,  Chicago. 

Seaside  and  Wayside  Series  of  Readers.  J.  M.  Wright.  D.  C. 
Heath  &  Co.,  Chicago. 

ANIMALS 

32.  Familiar  Animals.  During  the  winter  months  the 
study  of  birds  and  insects  may  be  omitted  in  the  primary 
grades  and  the  study  of  quadrupeds  taken,  instead. 

It  is  always  better  to  begin  with  familiar  animals,  borrow- 
ing pet  dogs,  cats,  rabbits  and  others,  for  the  purpose.  By 
kind  treatment  and  proper  feeding,  these  animals  will  soon 


344  Public  School  Methods 

feel  at  home  in  the  schoolroom  and  permit  themselves  to 
be  thoroughly  inspected  and  freely  handled. 

If  there  is  a  child  hard  to  interest  in  school  matters, 
borrow  that  child's  pet  and  have  it  fully  understood  that 
the  loan  is  to  be  looked  upon  as  a  very  special  privilege, 
only  allowed  to  those  whose  conduct  and  lessons  are  up  to 
the  required  standard. 

33.  Animals  Preparing  for  Winter.  The  squirrels  secure 
nuts  for  winter  use;  the  fur-bearers  grow  thick,  heavy  coats, 
glossy  and  bright;  cattle  and  horses  and  other  domestic 
animals  grow  longer  hair  and  heavier  pelts,  and  the  hiber- 
nating animals  get  ready  for  their  long  sleep. 

34.  The  Rabbit.  Have  a  pet  rabbit  brought  to  school. 
Have  for  your  own  use  the  following  topics,  which  may  be 
developed  as  suggested: 

(a)  His  Coloring  a  Protection.  Perhaps  he  is  a  little 
brownish-gray  rabbit.  Have  the  children  notice  his  color. 
Then  ask  how  many  have  seen  white  rabbits  with  pretty, 
pink  eyes.  Ask  where  wild  rabbits  live.  (Wild  rabbits 
make  their  homes  in  the  fields  or  woods  near  patches  of 
clover.  The  nest  is  a  shallow  hole  burrowed  out  under  a 
stump  or  clump  of  weeds,  and  lined  with  grass.)  Which  do 
you  think  you  could  see  the  more  easily  in  the  fields,  the 
brown  or  the  white  rabbit?  Why?  (The  brown  rabbit's 
coloring  harmonizes  with  its  surroundings,  the  ground  and 
vegetation.  Its  coloring  is  protective.  White  rabbits  may 
be  said  to  be  a  freak  of  nature.  They  are  very  few  in  number. 
They  fall  a  prey  to  their  enemies  more  easily  than  the  colored 
ones,  for  they  are  very  conspicuous  in  color,  are  not  hardy 
and  their  sight  is  poor,  because  they  have  no  coloring  matter 
in  their  eyes.) 

(b)  Nose.  After  watching  the  rabbit  for  a  few  minutes 
some  of  the  children  will  ask,  probably,  "What  makes  it 
move  its  nose  in  that  funny  way?"  Perhaps  some  of  them 
have  seen  a  dog  snuff  the  wind  and  can  tell  why  he  does  it. 
(The  rabbit  can  find  out  in  this  way  if  his  enemies  are  near 
and  then  can  run  away,  as  he  has  no  other  means  of  defense.) 


Nature  Study  345 

(c)  Hind  and  Fore  Legs.  Call  attention  to  the  differ- 
ence between  the  hind  and  fore  legs.  Ask  if  any  of  them 
have  seen  the  rabbit  run.  (He  leaps  rather  than  runs,  and 
his  hind  legs  are  therefore  long  and  powerful.)  You  then 
might  ask,  "Can  he  go  faster  up  hill  or  down?"  (Perhaps 
some  have  seen  him  run  up  hill,  his  long  leaps  taking  him 
away  from  the  dogs  at  a  great  rate.  When  he  comes  to  the 
descent  on  the  other  side  and  has  to  go  down  hill,  however, 
poor  Bun  has  been  known  to  go  heels  over  head  down  the 
slope,  and  if  the  hill  is  very  long,  to  be  overtaken  by  the  dog.) 

(d)  Tail.  The  children  will  be  much  amused,  doubtless, 
by  his  little  short  tail,  looking  like  a  bunch  of  cotton  and 
giving  him  his  nickname  of  cotton-tail.  This  little  tail, 
showing  white,  is  thrown  up  when  the  rabbit  runs  and  may 
be  used  as  a  signal  to  tell  the  little  ones  that  danger  is  near. 

(e)  Divided  Lip.  Some  boy  or  girl  will  notice  the  split 
lip.  You  can  feed  the  rabbit  clover  and  let  all  see  how  it 
eats;  having  this  divided  lip  enables  it  to  get  its  food  into 
its  mouth  easily. 

(f)  Food.  The  children  will  tell  you  that,  besides  clover, 
the  rabbit  eats  lettuce,  cabbage  and  apple,  and  it  would 
be  a  pleasant  diversion  for  "little  brother"  and  the  children 
to  let  him  eat  a  mouthful  of  each  to  show  this  to  be  so. 
Too  much  luxury,  it  is  said,  is  no  better  for  Bunny  than 
for  people,  and  it  is  known  that  rabbits  that  live  on  a  hill- 
side where  clover  grows  abundantly  are  not  as  healthy  as 
those  that  must  cover  a  much  wider  range  in  hunting  for 
a  livelihood.     Exercise  is  needed  by  all  animals. 

(g)  Ears.  The  beautiful  silky  ears  of  the  rabbit  are 
not  for  ornament  merely,  but  serve  to  catch  the  sound  and 
render  his  hearing  keener,  for  the  rabbit  depends  on  his 
speed  to  escape  from  his  enemies,  and  nature  gives  him 
keen  scent  and  hearing  to  enable  him  to  detect  their  approach.1 

(h)  Literature.  There  are  many  excellent  fables  and 
anecdotes  about  the  rabbit.  Be  sure  to  read  the  story  of 
the  Tar  Baby. 

1  Adapted  from  lesson  by  Isabel  Bond,  in  Primary  Education. 


346  Public  School  Methods 

In  giving  a  lesson  upon  the  rabbit,  teachers  may  use 
the  picture  At  the  Farm,  in  case  a  live  rabbit  cannot  be 
obtained. 

Caution.  In  addition  to  the  information  given  in  the 
above  lesson,  children  should  be  taught  that  rabbits  are 
very  easily  hurt  or  killed,  hence  they  must  be  very  care- 
fully handled;  also,  that  they  are  very  prolific  breeders,  and 
when  numerous  are  apt  to  do  serious  injury  to  the  young 
trees,  especially  fruit  trees,  by  burrowing  around  the  roots 
and  gnawing  the  tender  bark;  they  also  often  do  much 
damage  to  gardens. 

35.  The  Goat,  (a)  Familiar  Names,  (i)  Male.  "Billy 
goat." 

(2)  Female.     "Nanny  goat." 

(3)  Young  Goat.     Kid. 

(b)  Distinguishing  Characteristics  of  Billy  Goat. 
He  has  large,  strong  horns,  which  he  uses  for  defense  and 
with  which  he  often  butts  children  or  adults,  when  cross 
or  mischievous.  He  can  be  trained  to  wear  a  harness  and 
draw  a  cart  or  small  sleigh.     He  has  a  beard  on  the  chin. 

(c)  Distinguishing  Characteristics  of  Nanny  Goat. 
She  has  smaller  horns,  no  beard,  and  a  very  gentle  and 
playful  disposition.  She  gives  milk  of  very  rich  quality. 
Herds  of  goats  are  kept  for  milk  in  mountainous  districts 
where  cows  could  not  climb  to  the  rocky  pastures,  and  in 
many  foreign  countries  they  are  the  chief  source  of  milk 
supply. 

(d)  Outline  for  Study,     (i)  Body.     Size;  shape. 

(2)  Covering.     Kind;  color;  use. 

(3)  Legs.     Number;  feet;  hoofs,  number  and  kind. 

(4)  Head.     Eyes;  ears;  mouth;  teeth,  number  and  kind. 

(5)  Horns.     Number;  position;  size;  shape;  use. 

(6)  Food.  Hay;  oats;  grass;  clover;  vegetables;  leaves; 
thistles  and  other  weeds;  water,  occasionally. 

(7)  Products.  Milk;  butter;  cheese;  flesh  for  food;  skin 
for  leather;  hair  for  plaster  and  for  coarse  cloth;  bones  for 
fertilizer. 


Nature  Study  347 

(e)  Literature.  There  are  many  interesting  fables  and 
anecdotes  that  may  be  used  with  profit. 

36.  The  Cow.1  Keep  the  following  study  outline  before 
the  class  for  several  days,  requiring  the  facts  to  be  obtained 
from  the  observation  of  cows,  when  possible;  otherwise, 
do  as  well  as  may  be  by  the  use  of  pictures,  stories,  black- 
board drawings,  etc. 

(a)  Study  Outline,  (i)  Body.  Size;  shape;  covering; 
use  of  covering;  color. 

(2)  Head.  Face;  eyes;  ears;  nose;  mouth;  lips;  tongue; 
teeth,  number  and  kind;  horns,  number,  shape,  position 
and  use. 

(3)  Limbs.     Number,    shape,    size;    feet;   toes;   hoofs. 

(4)  Tail.     Length;  quality  of  hair;  use. 

(5)  Stomachs.  Give  only  a  general  description.  Tell 
what  is  necessary,  since  this  part  cannot  be  illustrated. 

(6)  Food.     Grass;  hay;  grains;  vegetables;  water;  milk. 

(7)  Udder.     Shape;  size;  position;  use. 

(8)  Products.  Milk;  cream;  butter;  cheese;  flesh  for 
beef;  skin  for  leather;  hair  for  plaster;  horns  for  combs, 
buttons,  etc.;  hoofs  for  glue;  bones  for  fertilizer. 

(9)  Care  Needed.  Kindness;  gentle  voices;  plenty  of  food 
and  clean  water;  clean,  warm,  well-ventilated  and  well- 
lighted  stables;  regularity  in  feeding,  watering  and  milking; 
good  pasturage  for  as  many  months  as  the  weather  will 
permit.  The  best  pastures  are  those  that  have  running 
water  and  at  least  a  few  trees  for  shade. 

(b)  Additional  Questions.  How  does  a  cow  lie  down? 
How  does  she  get  up?  How  defend  herself?  How  eat  and 
drink?  What  sound  does  she  make?  Does  she  get  angry? 
On  which  side  should  the  milker  sit?  Is  the  cow  handsome? 
Graceful?  Can  she  run  fast?  What  is  her  baby  called?  Is 
she  a  kind  mother? 

37.  Protection  of  Wild  Animals.  Valuable  lessons  can  be 
given  the  older  pupils  on  the  relations  of  the  larger  wild  ani- 
mals to  man,  and  the  destruction  of  those  animals  caused  by 

1  By  M.  Helen  Beckwith  (adapted). 


348  Public  School  Methods 

sportsmen  and  by  professional  hunters.  The  sportsmen 
destroy  these  animals  for  the  mere  sport  of  killing  game, 
and  the  hunter  destroys  them  for  their  products,  such  as  fur 
and  flesh.  For  these  reasons  many  of  the  large  animals, 
as  well  as  many  species  of  fish,  have  for  a  number  of  years 
been  in  danger  of  extermination,  and  to  prevent  this  both 
state  and  national  governments  have  enacted  game  and 
fish  laws  which  either  prevent  the  killing  of  game  at  all 
or  restrict  it  to  certain  seasons  of  the  year.  In  addition 
to  this,  the  United  States  government  has  established  game 
preserves  in  the  Yellowstone  and  Yosemite  National  parks, 
besides  several  smaller  preserves  in  Arizona,  Colorado, 
Montana,   Nebraska  and  New  Mexico. 

Call  attention  to  what  is  being  done  to  protect  valuable 
animals  from  ruthless  destruction,  and  lead  the  pupils  to 
become  acquainted  with  the  fish  and  game  laws  of  their  own 
state;  and  what  is  more  important  still,  develop  in  your 
pupils  a  sentiment  against  killing  animals  for  mere  sport. 
This  is  a  very  practical  and  important  phase  of  nature  study 
that  no  teacher  should  overlook. 

Take  care  to  have  the  children  understand  the  provision 
nature  has  made  for  each  animal  to  live  its  life  to  the  best 
advantage,  that  is,  the  wise  adaptation  of  its  structure  and 
habits  to  suit  its  environment. 

Another  point  that  should  always  be  emphasized  is  the 
relation  of  man  to  the  animal  world,  and  the  interdependence 
of  men  and  the  domestic  animals. 

Interest,  exactness  of  observation,  practical  knowledge,  the 
growth  of  humane  feelings  and  a  spirit  of  grateful  reverence 
should  be  the  outcome  of  all  lessons  in  nature  study,  and  the 
progress  that  children  make  along  these  lines  should  be  the 
divining  rod  by  which  teachers  may  measure  their  success. 

Work    earnestly,    systematically,     definitely,     reverently. 

Use  intelligent,  interesting  methods.     Direct  the  work,  but 

let  the  pupils  do  most  of  it.     Wait  patiently  for  results. 

38.  Books  for  Teachers.  Zoology,  Descriptive  and  Practical.  B.  P.. 
Colton.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  Chicago. 


Nature  Study  349 

Animal  Life  in  the  Sea  and  on  the  Land.  Sarah  Cooper.  Amer- 
ican Book  Company,   Chicago. 

Comparative  Zoology.  James  Orton.  American  Book  Company, 
Chicago. 

Zoology.     A.  S.  Packard.     Henry  Holt  &  Co.,  Chicago. 

TEST  QUESTIONS 

i.  Which  is  the  easier  for  first  grade  pupils,  the  study  of 
plants  or  the  study  of  animals?     Why? 

2.  Why  should  birds  be  protected?  What  can  you  do  to 
secure  an  interest  in  their  protection  on  the  part  of  your 
pupils? 

3.  What  instructions  do  children  need  to  enable  them  to 
observe  birds  carefully?  What  sort  of  preparation  should 
the  teacher  have  to  enable  her  to  give  these  instructions  ? 

4.  What  lessons  in  character  building  can  be  learned  from 
the  study  of  birds  ?  Should  such  lessons  be  made  prominent  ? 
Why? 

5.  Do  you  have  an  aversion  for  caterpillars  and  worms? 
If  so,  what  is  the  cause  of  it?  How  can  you  overcome  this 
obstacle  to  your  nature  study  work? 

6.  What  relation  should  the  study  of  insects  bear  to  the 
study  of  plants?  What  practical  lessons  that  will  show 
their  relation  can  you  give? 

7.  Why  is  the  ant  more  desirable  for  study  than  the  fly? 
Would  it  be  wise  to  introduce  the  study  of  bees  into  the 
primary  grades?     Why? 

8.  What  wild  animals  are  injurious  to  growing  crops? 
to  poultry?  Do  these  animals  in  any  way  compensate  the 
farmer  for  what  they  destroy? 

9.  Which  would  you  prefer  to  have  the  pupils  of  primary 
grades  study,  the  cow  or  the  sheep?  Why?  What  other 
domestic  animals  can  be  studied  with  profit? 

10.  What  proportion  of  the  term  should  be  given  to 
nature  study  in  the  first  and  second  grades?  Show  how 
you  can  relate  this  work  to  (a)  reading,  (b)  language,  (c) 
drawing,  (d)  geography. 


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